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A N N 1 V r£RS AR Y

THE

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BOOK

M CYCLOPEDIA

THE

WORLD BOOK.

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D I A

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG NUMBER 66-10005

ysf

is the 23rd letter of our
alphabet. The letter de-
iom a symbol

used by the Semites, who once live
tine. They named it wau\ meaning
an Egyptian hieiog/ypliic, or picture
mans, who took it from the Greeks, g;
The\- first pronounced it as we pronou
pronounced it as I'. During the looo's,
doubled the V, as I'V, in order to wri
Saxon letter wen, for which they had no 1
alphabet. The VV was also written in a ro'
as UU. It later came to be called "double
lish. See Alphabet.

Uses. II' or zv is about the 19th most frequei^
letter in books, newspapers, and other printed n"
in English. W is used to abbreviate west. In ml
titles, IV often stands for women or women's, as in
for Women's Army Corps. In electricity, tv is used'
watt. In chemistry M' is the symbol for the elemi
tungsten.

Pronunciation. In English, a person pronounces w h
rounding his lips and raising his tongue toward the
velum, or soft palate, in preparation for a vowel sound
to follow. The velum is closed, and the vocal cords
vibrate. IT is silent in words such as wro?!g and answer.
It rarely occurs in .Scandinavian languages or in French
and other Romance languages, e.xcept for. a few words
from other tongues. In German, it usually has the
sound of;;. See Pronunciation, i. j. gelb and j. m. vvells

Afhnik Ocean

The 23rd letter first appeared as a double V in the
1 OOO's. French scribes used VV to approximate the
Anglo-Saxon wen, for which they had no letter.

Medieval Scribes began
doubling V to make W.They
called the letter double U.

GREECE

Med/ferroneon Sea

The Romans, about A.D. 1 14,
gave V its capital shape.

PHOENICIA

The Small Letter w came into use
along with the capital in the 1 OOO's.
It had its present shape by the 1 500's.

EGYPT •

The Greeks, about 600 B.C.,
called their letter upsilon.

TODAY

A.D. 1000

w w

The Egyptians, about 3000 B.C.,
used a symbol of a supporting pole.

The Phoenicians, about 1000
B.C., used a symbol of a hook.

WABASH COLLEGE

WABASH COLLEGE is a privately controlled liberal
arts school for men at Clravvfordsville, Ind. Courses
offered lead to the bachelor of arts degree. At the end of
their second year, students concentrate in one of the
following three divisions: sciences and mathematics;
humanities; and social sciences. Wabash College was
founded in 1832. For enrollment, see Universities
AND Colleges (table). bvron k. trippet

WABASH RIVER is the main waterway of Indiana.
It rises in western Ohio and flows northwest into In-
diana to Huntington. Then it turns soYithwest to Cov-
ington, where it flows south to the Ohio River, at the
lUinois-Indiana-Kentucky boundary line. The Wabash
forms the boundaiy between Illinois and Indiana from
Terre Haute, Ind., to the Ohio River. The Wabash is
no longer navigated, except by small boats and ferries.
The old Wabash and Erie Canal runs parallel with the
Wabash River from Terre Haute to Huntington, Ind.
The river is 475 miles long, and drains an area of 33, 1 50
square miles. For location, see Indiana (physical map).

The Wabash River is mentioned in many songs about
Indiana, including Paul Dresser's "On the Banks of the

Wabash." Paul E. Million, Jr.

WAC Stands for the Women's Army Corps, It gives
American women a chance to contribute directly to the
military strength of the United States Army during
peace and war. Members of the corps are women volun-
teers. They must be at least 18 years old when they
enter the sei-vice. Members of the corps are often called
H'ACs. Ihe United States Women's Army Corps Cen-
ter is the permanent training base for enlisted women
and officers. It is located at Fort McClellan, north of
Anniston, Ala.

WACs serve in the United States and overseas. Their
assignments include all types of military duties except
those that require great physical strength or that are
not suitable for women. Most enlisted women serve in
clerical, medical, and communications fields. Some
WACs work in public information, finance, control-
tower operation, and electronics. Officers receive assign-
ments in personnel, intelligence, training, supply, and
administration. The director holds the rank of colonel.

The WAC began as the Women's Army Auxiliary
Corps (WAAC) on May 14, 1942. After operating for a
year as an au.xiliary agency, the WAAC became a part
of the United States Army, and the name was changed
to Women's Army Corps. Congress made the WAC a
permanent part of the regular army and the army re-
serve in 1948.

During World War II, WACs received their basic
training at five army posts in the United States. Many
graduates of basic training received advance training in
various specialties at WAC and army schools.

1 he first group of enlisted women to serve overseas
arrived in Algeria on Jan. 27, 1943. More than 17,000
WACs served overseas during World War II. The corps
reached its peak strength in April, 1945, with about
100,000 WACs. After Wodd War II, the strength of the
WAC fell to about 7,0U0, then increased during the
Korean War. The present strength of the corps is about

O,U00 WACs. Critically reviewed by Womf.n's ArmV Corps

WAC CORPORAL, a U.S. Army rocket. See Rocket
(High-Altitude Experiments; picture).

U.S. Army

The U.S. Army WAC serves her country in wor and peace by
performing defense duties in the United States and other countries.

WACHT AM RHEIN, DIE. See Watch on the Rhine.

WACO, WAl' koh, Tex. (pop. 97,808; met. area
150,091; alt. 405 ft.), is one of the leading inland cotton
markets of the United States and an industrial center
of central Texas. Waco lies on the Brazos River about
100 miles south of Dallas (see Texas [political map]).

The city serves as the shipping center for a farm
region which produces grain, hay, fruits, vegetables,
livestock, and poultry. Waco industries manufacture
dairy and cottonseed products, textiles, tents and
awnings, glass products, furniture, wood products, and
iron and steel products.

Baylor University and Paul Quinn College are
located in Waco. Waco was laid out in 1849 on the site
of a former village built by Waco Indians. The city
was incorporated in 1850, and has a council-manager

form of government. H. bailey Carroll

WADAI, wah Df, a territory in Africa, lies south of
the Sahara Desert and west of Sudan. Once an inde-
pendent Moslem sultanate, it now forms part of the
Republic of Chad. It covers about 80,000 square miles
and has a population of about 800,000. Most of the
people are Negroes and Arabs.

WADE-DAVIS MANIFESTO. See Reconstruction
(Congressional Schemes).

WADI, H'AH dih, in the Middle East and northern
Africa, is a gully or ravine through which a stream flows
in the rainy season. Wadis are often formed in desert
sand. In .Arabic llic word wadi means ravine.

WADSWORTH, JOSEPH. See Charter Oak.

WADSWORTH-LONGFELLOW HOUSE. See Maine
(Places to Visit).

U.S. Air Force

United States Air Force WAF perform o wide variety of
clerical, administrative, and technical duties at air bases.

WAF is the popular name for women members of the
United States Air Force other than nurses and medical
specialists. WAF, or Women in the Air Force, serve in
all enlisted grades and in officer grades through the rank
of lieutenant colonel. One officer is designated Director
of the WAF, and serves as a colonel during her term of
office. Initial officer and enlisted training is provided at
Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. W'omen graduates
then go to technical training schools or to jobs at bases
in all parts of the United .States and certain other
countries. They work in administrative and clerical
jobs in air transportation, communications, medical and
dental services, finance, statistical services, personnel,
and weather.

WAF may wear the .\ir Force blue uniform through-
out the year, or they may wear a blue and white striped
cotton and synthetic-fiber two-piece dress in summer.
Their uniform insignia and buttons resemble those
worn by men, except that they are smaller. W.\F enjoy
all ser\-ice rights and benefits conferred on male mem-
bers of the air force.

From 1943 until the air force became an independent
service in 1947, women members were known as Air
iVACs. About 45,000 Air W.\Cs performed a variet\- of
jobs during World War II at air bases in all parts of the
world. Women who flew army air forces planes during
the war were called iVASPs, or Women's Airforce Serv-
ice Pilots.

In 1948, Congress authorized the enlistment and
appointment of women in the Regular .Air Force, limit-
ing the number of women officers to 2 per cent of the
Regular Air Force suength. cruicaiiy reviewed by me waf

WAGES AND HOURS

WAGER, H'AT jer, is a bet, or anything which is
risked on the outcome of an event or the answer to a
question. Money or other property- may be wagered, or
it may be agreed that the loser of the bet shall do a cer-
tain thing. Laws do not enforce the payment of wagers,
except in countries and states where that kind of gam-
bling is lawful. See also G.-kmbling; Lottery.

WAGES AND HOURS. Wages are the price paid for
the services of labor. They are usually figured per hour
or per week.

Wages are the source of a worker's ability to buy
goods and services. Wages are classified as money
wages and real wages. Money wages are the actual
amount of money a worker receives from his employer.
Real wages are figured from the amount of goods and
services the worker can buy with his money wages.

Money wages depend upon the amount of money in
circulation, government economic policies, and general
business conditions in a countr)'. Real wages depend
upon money wages and workers" average output per
man-hour.

-An employer can increase both the real and money
wages of his workers by giving them a raise in salary.
Their real wages would rise even if the employer in-
creased the price of his product to regain the money he
lost by paying higher salaries. But if ever>- employer
raised his prices when he increased salaries, the worker
might lose his increase in real wages. For example, a
worker earning $100 a week may receive a raise of
10 per cent to $110 a week. But if the prices of the
goods he buys also rise by 10 per cent, he is receiv-
ing the same real wages at $110 as he did at $100.
Since 1900, money wages in the United States have
risen about 3j times as much as real wages.

State minimum-wage laws and the Federal Fair
Labor Standards .\ct of 1938, which was amended in
1949, 1956, and 1961, have helped to raise the wages
of the lowest paid workers in many industries.

Real wages per hour are closely related to output
per man-hour. Output per man-hour shows the amount
of goods a worker can produce in one hour. Output per
man-hour increases as workers become more skilled,
and as machinery', tools, and factories become more
efficient. Since 1900, output per man-hour in the U.S.
has increased an average of between 2 and 2i per cent
a year.

Since 1945, employers have spent an increasing per-
centage of their labor costs on fringe benefits, rather
than take-home pay for the worker. The most popular
fringe benefits include pension plans, prepaid medical
and dental care for employees, paid holidays, and
paid rest time. Employers usually consider fringe
benefits as a substitute for wages, rather than as an
additional contribution to the workers.

Hours. Before the Industrial Revolution, most persons
worked on farms where the workday ran from sunrise
to sunset. Factory operators tried to enforce the same
hours during the Industrial Revolution of the late
1700's and early 1800"s, despite the difference in
working conditions and the t)pe of work. Gradually,
factories began adopting the 10-hour day and the 6-day
week. This became the normal working period in the
United States and Europe.

WAGES AND HOURS IN THE UNITED STATES

Average weekly gross wages (before social securit7 and income
fox deductions) have increased greatly during the 1900's, below,
left. Average weekly working hours have decreased during the
Dollars per week

same period, below, right. Both graphs report statistics only for
production workers in manufacturing industries. The figures
include overtime and holiday pay and work.
Hours per week

$100

AVE

?AGE\

A^EEKL'

f^NKQ

40
30
20
10

. A'

1900 1910 1920 1930

1940

1950 1960 1970

Year

Weekly Wages

Weekly Hours

1909

$ 9.84

51.0

19U

11.01

49.4

1920

26.30

47.4

1925

24.37

44.5

1930

23.25

42.1

1935

20.13

36.6

1940

24.96

38.1

1945

44.20

43.5

1950

58.32

40.5

1955

75.70

40.7

1960

89.72

39.7

1961

92.34

39.8

1962

96.61

40.4

1963

97.99

40.2

Based on the latent available government statistica.

Labor began its demands for an 8-hour day in the
i880's. But the 8-hour day did not become common in
the United States until after World War I. During the
1930's, the 5-day, 40-hour work week came into general
practice in the United States. In the 1960's, some
U.S. labor leaders talked of a 35-hour workweek for
their union members.

Shorter workweeks provide additional leisure time
for workers. This extra leisure time comes from a
rising standard of living among workers, combined with

80
70
60

1 1 1 1
AVERAGE WEEKLY HOURS

1 1 1 1

50
40

Vv-^N

\A*' "

1 ... - i- -...1 1

« i

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

an output per man-hour that has been greatly increased
by mass-production methods. Meivin warren Reder

Related Articles in World Book include:

Child Labor

Cost of Living

Labor

Labor, Department of

WAGNER, WAG nuhr,

Minimum Wage
Piecework
Profit Sharing
Unemployment Insurance

HONUS, HOH nuhs (1874-
1955), is considered baseball's greatest shortstop by
many experts. Wagner played for the Pittsburgh Pirates
for 21 years. Later, he sei-ved many years as their coach.
He had a lifetime batting average of .329 and led the
National League in batting eight times, including four
times in a row. Wagner batted .300 or better during 1 7 of
his seasons in the National League, and held many bat-
ting records by the time he retired as an active player.
He stole 61 bases in 1907, and led the league in stolen
bases five times. He was elected to the National Base-
ball Hall of Fame in 1936. His full name was John Peter
W.iiGNER. He was born in Carnegie, Pa. Ed Fitzgerald

WAGNER, VAHG ner, RICHARD (1813-1883), was a
German composer and poet. He was a controversial and
fascinating genius of the European artistic scene in the
1800's. Aside from his youthful works, every one of
Wagner's operas and music dramas is, in its own way,
a masterpiece.

His best known works include Rienzi (1840), Der
Fliegeudf Hollander (The Flying Dutchman, 1843), Tann-
hdusei (1845), Lohengrin (1850), Tristan und Isolde
( 1 865), Die Meistersinger von Aiirnberg ( The Master-
singers of Nuremberg, 1868), Der Ring des .Mbelungen
{'/he Ring of the Mbelungs, 1876), and Parsifal (1882).

Der Ring des Xibclungen, composed from 1853 to 18/4.
is a four-evening cycle of music dramas. Its parts are
Das Rheingold {The Rhinegold. 1854), Die JValkiire (The
Valkyries, 1856), AVij/rw/ (1869), and Die Gbtterddmmer-
ung (The Twilight of the Gods. 1874).

His Music. Wagner's revolutionary approach to his
work was tempered b\' his musical background. With
Christoph Willibald Gluck, he insisted that music must
be "the handmaid of the drama." All that was na-
tional, natural, and expressive in the music of Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven inspired
him, and the heroic size of Giacomo Meyerbeer's
operas appealed to his feeling for theater.

But Wagner found himself increasingly out of sym-
pathy with many operatic ideas of his time. His basic
musical expression became symphonic, not vocal. Wag-
ner's fundamental ideas were that all things German
were great, that his art could unify Germany culturally
and politically, and that human redemption is achieved
through love. Wagner believed that his own ability and
Tightness were beyond question.

To express these ideas, Wagner developed a revolu-
tionary musical technique. Beginning with Tri.tan und
Isolde, the music in his operas does not stop for the con-
ventional operatic punctuation of recitatives and arias
from the beginning to the end of each act. The melod-
ic and dramatic line is "'endless," at times in the voice,
and at times in the orchestra. Wagner fashioned this
"endless" melody from short, striking pieces of musical
subject matter — his leitmotivs, or leading motives. These
are associated with characters, situations, and stage
properties as the drama moves forward. The leading
motives recur, often modified by the needs of the drama,
and provide a kind of symphonic unity for the work.
His Life. The story of Wagner's life is filled with
tragic and even sordid incidents. His belief in his own
genius and his compulsive need to live his life as a cre-
ative artist made him impatient with normal responsi-
bilities. He \\as hardly ever clear of financial or marital
difficulties, and was often
forced to leave an otherwise
promising situation because
of one or the other of these
two problems. In his de-
fense, it must be said that
copyright laws were so
primitive that he was badly
cheated, and that his wife
shared the blame for his
marriage difficulties.

Wagner was born on
May 22, 1813, in Leipzig,
into a family of actors,
singers, painters, and
writers. The theatrical,
musical, and literary atmosphere of his youth was
probably an ideal education. He played the piano, lived
backstage in opera houses, and wrote poetry. For several
years he had lessons in composition. He composed a
symphony when he was 19.

In 1833, Wagner began his professional career. He
moved from one town to another, drilling soloists,
choruses, and orchestras. Each move involved some
greater responsibility, and the process provided in-
valuable training and experience. He finished his first

Richard Wagner

WAGNER, ROBERT FERDINAND

complete opera. Die Feen, in 1834. but it was not per-
formed until 1888. This period ended in 1839, when he
sailed from Riga to London.

Wagner then went to Paris, where he met the com-
posers Giacomo Meyerbeer, Hector Berlioz, and Franz
Liszt. In 1842 he moved to Dresden, where a perform-
ance o{ RieriZ! brought him his first real success. He was
made director of music at the Dresden Theater in 1843.
But between 1849 and 1860, Wagner was banished
from Germany because of his part in the May Revolu-
tion. During these years of wandering, he conducted,
wrote pamphlets and articles, and worked on the Ring
and Tristan und Isolde. He also supervised performances
of his works.

In 1864 he was invited to Munich by King Ludwig
of Bavaria. By the end of 1865, Wagner was so involved
in difficulties that he left Munich and eventually settled
at Triebschen on Lake Lucerne. In 1872 Wagner and
his second wife, Cosima, Liszt's daughter, moved to
Bayreuth to await the construction of the Festival The-
ater. There he completed the Ring, though he had

composers,
by Waller Rifharijs

Richard Wogner heard the legend of a Dutch sea captain
who defied the devil from an old mariner on the storm-tossed Eng-
lish Channel. The tale inspired Wagner's The Flying Dutchman.

trouble financing the theater. The theater was not
completed until 1876. It opened with the first complete
performance of the Ring.

In his last years, Wagner wrote Parsifal and con-
tinued to supervise performances of his works. He suf-
fered frequent heart attacks, however, and died at

Venice on Feb. 13, 1883. Theodore M. Finney

.See also Opera; Ring of the Xibelungs, The.

WAGNER, ir.46 niihr. ROBERT FERDINAND (1877-
1953), an American statesman, served in the New York
legislatttre and showed special interest in welfare ques-
tions. He was justice of the Supreme Court of New York
from 1919 to 1926, and from then until 1949 served as a
L'niled .States Senator from New York. A Democrat, he
introduced the National Labor Relations Act, or "Wag-
ner Act," the National Industrial Recovery Act, the
Social .Security Act, and the U.S. Housing Act of 1937.
Wagner was born at Nastatten, Germany. His son,
Robert F. Wagner, Jr. (1910- ), was elected mayor
of New York City in 1954. harvey Wish

WAGNER ACT

WAGNER ACT. See Labor (The Federal Govern-
ment); National Labor Relations Board.

WAGNER COLLEGE is a private coeducational school
on Staten Island, N.Y. It is related to the L'nited
Lutheran Church. Founded in 1883, Wagner became a
liberal arts college in 1928. It grants bachelor's and
master's degrees in business and education. For enroll-
ment, see LIniversities and Colleges (table).

WAGON. The wheel and the wagon developed at the
same time. This was at least 5,000 years ago, when
man first found that he could pull his sledges more
easily if he had them fitted with wheels that were
solid pieces of wood. The Egyptians were among the
earliest people to use wagons. The Scythians wandered
over the plains of southeastern Europe as early as 700
B.C., carrying their possessions on two-wheeled carts
covered with reeds. The Greeks and the Romans de-
veloped chariots which were lighter and faster than
those of the Egyptians. Until the Middle Ages, wagons
were no more than boxes set upon axles between wheels.
Then the four-wheeled coach was developed in Ger-
many.

English governors of American colonies introduced
the first wagons in North America. Stagecoaches be-
gan to run over colonial roads about the time of George
Washington. The prairie schooner (covered wagon),
which was first built by the German farmers of Pennsyl-
vania, was used in the development of the American
West. Farm wagons carried crops to market until the
early 1900's. The present-day truck trailer is actually
a kind of wagon. Frankun m. Reck

See also Chuck Wagon; Conestoga Wagon; Pio-
neer Life (Covered Wagon); Stagecoach; Transpor-
tation (pictures).

WAGON TRAIN. See Pioneer Life; Western
Frontier Life (Transportation).

WAGONER, THE. See Auriga.

WAHABI. See Ikhwan; Saudi Arabia (The Turkish
Conquest).

WAHL, ARTHUR CHARLES. See Plutonium.

WAHOO is a fish that lives in the warm waters of
all oceans. In American waters, it lives ofT Florida,
Cuba, the West Indies, Panama, and the Galapagos
Islands. The wahoo is a game fighter and a good food
fish. It may grow to be 5 or 6 feet long and weigh
over 140 pounds. It has a pointed snout and a long

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

The Strong, Swift Wahoo,

one of the world's best game
fishes, puts up a valiant fight
when hooked by a fisherman.
It has a long, cigar-shaped
body and large irregular teeth.
Many dark vertical bars mark
the sides of the wahoo.

dorsal fin. It is also called the queenfish, or the peto.

Scientific Classification. The wahoo belongs to the
family Scomhridac. It is classified as genus Acanthocybium,
species .-1. solanderi. Lf.onard p. schultz

.See also Fishing (table, Game-Fishing World Records).

WAIBLINGEN. .See Guelphs and Ghibellines.

WAILING WALL is a high wall in Jerusalem. It is
about 160 feet long and about 40 feet high. Archaeolo-
gists have discovered that 19 rows of stones extend
about 20 feet underground. The lower part of the wall
contains stones said to be from Solomon's Temple.

Beginning in the 700's, the Arabs permitted Jews to
assemble at the wall on the evenings before their Sab-
bath and before their feast days. In services at the Wail-
ing Wall, the Jews recalled their traditions and suffer-
ings, and wailed and prayed. In 1928, the British police,
urged by the Arabs, removed a paper curtain that had
separated the men from the women. This incident led
to riots and bloodshed between .Arabs and Jews. In
1931, a commission appointed by Great Britain issued
a decree restricting the Jews' rights to use the wall, and
prohibiting them from blowing the shofar (ram's horn)
there. The wall is now located in Jordan,, and Jews are
forbidden to use it. For its location, see Jerusalem

(map). Bruce M. Metzger

WAINWRIGHT, JONATHAN MAYHEW (1883-1953),
was an .American general whose courage in the face of
ovei'whelming odds made him a hero of World War II.
After General Douglas MacArthur was ordered to leave
the Philippines and go to Australia in March, 1942,
Wainwright remained in command of the -American
and Filipino forces on Bataan Peninsula and Corregi-
dor. He was forced to surrender in April, 1942, and was
held a prisoner for three
years by the Japanese. He
was released in 1945, and
participated in the surren-
der ceremony of the Japa-
nese delegates aboard the
LLS.S. Missouri in Tokyo
Bay. On his return to the
United States, Wainwright
became a full general and
received the Congressional
Medal of Honor.

Wainwright was born in
Walla Walla, Wash., and
was graduated froin the
United States Military

Academy in 1906. He became a cavalry officer and
served in the Philippines in 1909 and 1910. During
World W^ir I. he served on the general staff of the 82nd
Division in France. After World War II. he commanded
the Fourth Anny. Wainwright retired from the army
in 1947. H. A. DeWeerd

See also Bataan Peninsula; World War II (Burma
and the Philippines).

WAIT was the name for a night guard which kept
watch at city gates in medieval times. In the 1400's and
1500's, waits became paid musicians who were sup-
ported by towns and cities. In the 1700's, Christmas
wails played and sang at Christmastime.

WAITE, wayl, MORRISON REMICK (1816-1888),
served as Chief Justice of the L'nitcd States from 1874
until his death. In the Granger Cases, his opinions up-

Jonathan Wainwright

held the power of state governments to regulate busi-
ness. Later in Waite's term, this doctrine lost favor when
the Court developed broad powers to enforce Amend-
ment 14. However, the doctrine of broad power to
regulate business was revived in the 1930's.

Waite was born at Lyme, Conn. He was graduated
from Yale University, and became a law'er in Ohio.
In 1871 he was an American delegate to the Geneva
Tribunal which considered the Alabama claims (see
Al.\b.\ma [ship]). Waite helped found the Republican
party, but declined to be considered for the party's
presidential nomination in 1875. Jerre s. Williams

WAKASHAN. See Indian, American (North Ameri-
can Indian Languages; table).

WAKE is the custom of watching over a dead person
before burial. In many countries, the custom is rarely
observed today. But some form of the custom has been
practiced in all parts of the world. In the traditional
wake, family and friends gathered at the dead person's
home. For some people this was a time for praying
and psalm singing. But for others, it was a time for
festivity and amusement. The custom of holding
wakes probably began because people believed that
evil spirits might possess an unburied corpse if it were
left alone. For this reason, many wakes lasted from the
hour of death until burial. Ch.^rles l. Wallis

WAKE FOREST COLLEGE is a privately controlled co-
educational liberal arts school in VVinston-Salem, N.C.
It is affiliated with the Baptist Church. The school offers
degrees in liberal arts, medicine, law, and business ad-
ministration. It has an Anuy ROTC unit. The college
was founded in 1834 at Wake Forest, N.C. In 1946,
the Z. .Smith Reynolds Foundation offered the college
a $350,000 annual grant if it moved to Winston-Salem.
The college completed its move in 1956. For enrollment,
see Unin'ersities and Colleges (table), russell Brantley

WAKE ISLAND is a L'nited States possession in the
west-central Pacific Ocean. It is a natural crossroads for
ships and airplanes crossing the Pacific. Wake is a
triangular atoll made up of three small islets, called
Wake, Peale, and Wilkes. The three coral islets cover a
land area of about three square miles. With a cur\'ing
reef, they enclose a shallow lagoon that is less than four
square miles in area. Wake lies 2,300 miles west of
Honolulu and 1 ,985 miles southeast of Tokyo. There
is no fresh water on Wake. The scant vegetation con-
sists mainly of shnibs and bushes.

Spanish ships probably sighted Wake when they ex-
plored the Pacific in the late 1 500's. The British schoon-
er Prime William Henry landed at the island in 1 796. In
1841, Commander Charles Wilkes of the United States
Exploring Expedition made a careful survey of the is-
land, with the aid of the naturalist, Titian Peale. They
found no indication that the island had ever been in-
habited. The United States formally claimed Wake in
1899 because it lay on the cable route from San Fran-
cisco to Manila. In 1935, Wake became a base for air
traffic crossing the Pacific.

Wake Island became a national defense area in 1941 .
For nvo weeks, a force of 400 L^niied States Marines and
about 1,(XX) civilians fought off a Japanese invasion.
But the island finally was captured late in December,
1941. The Japanese garrison on Wake surrendered at
the end of World War II. Edvvin h. Bryan, Jr.

WAKE-ROBIN. .See Trillium.

Rutgers University

Selman A. Waksman

WALDENSES

WAKSMAN, WARS mun, SELMAN ABRAHAM

(1888- ), made outstanding contributions to soil
microbiology and to the de-
velopment of antibiotics.
He taught and did research,
especially on a group of
fungi known as aelinomy-
cetes. He studied the effects
of soil microbes on each
other, on the fertility of the
soil, and on the formation
of humus.

In 1943 Waksman and
his collaborators discovered
the antibiotic, streptomycin
(see Streptomycin). Waks-
man gave his share of the
royalties to establish an In-
stitute of Microbiology at Rutgers L^niversity. He retired
as director of the Institute in 1958. He received the
1952 Nobel prize for physiology and medicine.

Waksman was born in Priluki, Kiev, Russia, and
moved to the L'nited States in 1910. He studied at Rut-
gers and the L'niversity of California. Mordecai l. Gabriel

WAKULLA SPRINGS. See Florida (Rivers, Lakes,
and .Springs).

WALACHIA. See Romania (Location; HistonO-

WALD, LILLIAN D. (1867-1940), founded the first non-
sectarian visiting nurse program in the L'nited .States.
Her contacts with the poor in New York C^ity in the
depression of 1892-1893 inspired her to found the
"Nurses' Settlement," later known as the Henry
Street .Settlement. To her we owe the system of public-
school nursing we know today. .She also worked closely
with the founder of the first "ungraded" class for back-
ward children.

She was the first to suggest to President William
Howard Taft the establishment of a national Children's
Bureau to study the needs of children ever\'whcre. Con-
gress set up the Children's Bureau as an agency of the
L'nited .States government in 1912. .She was an ardent
pacifist, and her views were held in high regard by
President Woodrow Wilson and others who worked for
peace. Lillian Wald was born in Cincinnati, Ohio. She
wrote The House on Henry Street (1915), and Windows on
Henry Street ( 1 934). Alan Keith-Lucas

WALDEMAR, or Valdemar. See Denmark (The
Danish Empire).

WALDENSES, wahl DE.\' seez. are members of a Chris-
tian sect which was founded in the Middle Ages by
Peter Waldo, a wealthy merchant of Lyon, France. In
1 1 76, he gave all his money to the poor and began a life
of poverty and religious devotion. His preaching at-
tracted many followers who took vows of poverty, chas-
tity, and obedience. They were known as the "poor men
of Lyon." Pope Alexander III forbade them to preach.
They were persecuted severely, and Pope Lucius III
excommunicated (harmed) them from the Church in 1 184.
But the sect continued to grow. There are about 30,000
W'aldensians in Italy. There are also members in Ar-
gentina, France, Germany, .Spain, .Switzerland, L'ru-
guay, and the L'nited States. The sect's headquarters
are in Torre Pellice, Italy. abdel Ross Wentz

WALES

WALES, waylz, is a small, mountainous country on
the western coast of the island of Great Britain. It is
part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. Cardiff is the capital and largest city.

\'ello\v daffodils and the white flowers of hawthorn
bushes brighten the lowlands in the spring. In the up-
lands, purple heather blooms all year round, bringing
color to the countryside. This is a land of rugged moim-
tains, deep valleys, and mshing streams.

Minerals make up the greatest wealth of Wales. Coal
mining is the leading industiy. Most of the land is too
steep and rocky to be plowed.

Wales lies to the west of England. It has been united
with England for more than 400 years, and English is
the official language of Wales. But tlie great national
pride of tlie Welsh people has helped them keep alive
their own language, literature, and traditions.

The people call their country Cymru, which comes
from their word (or fellow counlrymen. They call them-
selves Cymry. The name Wales comes from the Saxon

FACTS IN BRIEF

Type of Government: Part of the United Kingdom.

Capital: Cardiff.

Divisions: 13 counties, or shires.

Area: 8,017 square miles. Greatest dislmice: (north-
south) 137 miles; (east-west) 116 miles. Coastline, 614
miles.

Elevation: Highest, Snowdon Peak. 3,,')()0 feet; Lowest,
sea level.

Population: 2,712,000. Density, 33H persons to the
square niile.

Chief Products: .Agiicullure, barley, beef, butter, cheese,
hides, milk, oats, potatoes, turnips, wheat, wool. Manu-
faclurtm; and Processing, industrial machinery, iron and
steel, lumber, ships, tin plate. Mining, building stone,
coal, copper, iron, limestone, slate.

National Anthem, National floliday, and Money are
the same as in Great Britain. See Gkeat Britain.

The National Eisteddfod combines music and poetry in a colorful pageant.
Men with trumpets, obove, call for attention as the Gorsedd, or judges, award
prizes. Children in traditional costumes, /eft, carry the ancient national flog.

language, and means Land of Strangers. In literature,
Wales is sometimes called bv its Latin name, Cambria.

The Land and Its Resources

Location, Size, and Surface Features. On the north
and west, the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel
separate Wales from Ireland. On the south, the Bristol
Channel cuts Wales off from the English peninsula of
C:orn\vall and Devon. The Map shows that the large
Isle of Anglesey (called Mon in Welsh) lies off the
northwestern coast of Wales. A suspension bridge across
the narrow Menai Strait links Wales with Anglesey.
Wales covers 8,01 7 square miles.

The Cambrian Mountains cover about two thirds of
Wales. This range has the only high mountains in
Great Britain south of Scotland. The grass-covered
slopes of the low, broad mountains make them unusual-
ly beautiful. Snowdon (called Eryri in Welsh) rises to
3,.'i60 feet and is the highest point in the country.

The upland plateaus of the Cambrian range include
wide upland pastures, grassy plains, and bogs, or
swampy areas. Deep gorges and caves scar the steep
slopes leading from the plateaus to the valleys. Many
clear lakes and sparkling waterfalls dot the land.

River valleys and coastal plains stretch over about
one-third of Wales. These are the best areas for farming.
Narrow plains stretch along the south and west coasts.
In the north, lowlands lie in the valley of the River Dec,
and on the Lleyn Peninsula and the Isle of Anglesey.
Trees grow on the upland plateaus in many areas.

Rivers and Bays. The Severn and the Wye are the
longest rivers of Wales. They rise in the mountains near
Aberystwyth and flow eastward into England, then
southwest into the Bristol Channel. Large ships can
travel up the Severn for about 70 of its 210 miles. The
River Dee, in the north, rises in Bala Lake and flows
nordieastward into the Irish Sea just south of the River
Mersey. The Dee forms part of the boundary between
Wales and England.

Much of the coastiine is jagged and lined with high
clift's. Many natural bays and harbors lie along the
coast. Only a few are developed as ports. Fingers of

David Williams, the contributor of this article, is pro-
fessor of Welsh history at the University College of Wales,
Aberystwyth, Wales.

land jut into the Irish Sea along the western coast.

Climate. Rainfall averages 50 to 80 inches a year in
most of the countiy, and more than 100 inches in the
region around Snowdon. Temperatures in Wales av-
erage 40° F. in January and 60° F. in July.

Natural Resources. Rich coal beds in the valleys of
southern Wales are the countiy's greatest natural re-
source. These deposits have been mined for more than
1 50 years and still have large reserves of coal. A smaller
coal field lies in northern Wales. Northern Wales also
produces iron ore, copper ore, and other minerals.

The rough upland countiy offers few natural re-
sources except the building stone that is quarried from
the mountains. Northwestern Wales has one of the
largest slate quarries in the world.

The People and Their Work

The People. The first inhabitants of Wales were short
and dark-haired. Historians do not know where these
men came from. Many other peoples have since lived in
Wales, including fair-haired Celts, Norman warriors,
and English and Flemish craftsmen. But most Welsh
people still have dark hair and dark eyes, as did the
earliest inhabitants.

Way of Life. Welshmen take pride in their kindliness
and warm hospitality. The people are interested in all
phases of education, science, and the arts. They honor
historians, singers, poets, and musicians, and give them
important positions in local communities. Almost every
village and town has its own choral group.

Language. The Welsh language belongs to the group
of Celtic languages. It does not use the letters;, k, q, v,
X, and c. The letters w and y are sometimes used as

WALES

CAHMELS PT

Holyhead '^i

Amlwch Birkenhead^, , .

Colwyn _ (f^'I^Liverpool

Caernarvon

Bay yCAERNARVOH

^wllhej,

^^ ^ r ""■ • F'estiriM

Aberdaron/

Denbigh t^Chester

DENBIGH

Wrexham _ _
Llangollen.-' •■

Irish Sea

>IERJONE*rH ^

Cardigan V ,.', f . , ,.

Bay / Welshpool ,/f

Towyny ^^ontgomerv *^ Much <

Ponterwyd , -T
/ * ■

Aberystwyth/* *

WALES

V ENGLAND

RADNOR •*

•Llandrlndod Wells

Hereford

by Rand MoNally for WORLD BOOK

Caernarvon Castle kept the Welsh in check during their wars
for independence. King Edward I of England built Caernarvon on
the shores of the Menai Strait in the 1 280's. His son, the first English
Prince of Wales, was born at Caernarvon in 1 284.

British Information Services

M^^iK-

-^-V' :-^

Wales is a little larger than
the state of New Jersey.

Mist-Covered Peaks over-
look narrow valleys in Wales.
Lonely shepherds tend flocks
with their trained sheep dogs.

Welsh Miners developed the
country's coal industry. This
miner in the Rhondda Valley
waits to enter the pit.

vowels. Many Welsh words contain the double / and
the double d. The // is pronounced something like thl.
The dd is pronounced like the Ih in this.

Most Welshmen speak English, but some of the older
people still speak only Welsh. About one person in three
speaks both Welsh and English.

Holidays. The six legal holidays in Wales are Good
Friday, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, the first Mon-
day in August, Christmas Day, and Boxing Day, the
first weekday after Christmas (see England [Way of
Life]). On March i, many Welshmen wear leeks (some-
what like green onions) in their caps to commemorate
Saint David, the patron saint of Wales.

Food. The people are particularly fond of butter,
cheese, lamb, honey, and many kinds of breads and
cakes. Welsh rabbit (incorrectly called Welsh rarebit) is
melted cheese and butter served on toast. Two tradi-
tional Welsh delicacies are salmon from the rivers, and
bara lawr, a vegetable dish made from algae.

Recreation. Rugby and soccer are the most popular
sports in Wales. The Welsh often travel great distances
to attend international rugby matches. Boxing and
wrestling are also popular. Favorite individual sports
include tennis, golf, fishing, swimming, and lawn

bowling. Families often spend an evening together sing-
ing traditional folk songs. For vacations, the Welsh visit
beautiful resort towns King along the coasts, particu-
larlv in the north.

Cities. Cardiff(pop. 260,600) is the capital and largest
city in Wales. Other Welsh cities, together with their
populations, include Swansea ( 1 70.400). Newport ( 1 08,-
800). Rhondda ( 100,100). Merthvr Tydfil (58,700), Port
Talbot (51,500), Bariy (42.200), Pontypool (39,300),
Aberdare (39,000). and Caerphilly (36,600). .See the
separate articles on Welsh cities listed in the Related
Articles at the end of this article.

Mining. Coal mining is the most important industry
in Wales. Most of the coal mines are in the south.
CardiH' exports more coal than most other ports in the
\vorld. Iron ore and some other mineral ores, including
copper, zinc, and nickel, also are mined.

The stone quarries in the Cambrian Mountains
produce large amounts of limestone for use in building,
and in making industrial lime. Northern Wales exports
large shipments of roofing slate.

Manufacturing is centered in the south, near the
main coal fields. Metal processing leads die manufac-
turing industries. The area around CardifT and .Swansea
is one of the world's greatest producers of metals and
metal products. Mills produce steel and refine large
quantities of other metals. Most of these ores come from
mines outside Wales. Factories manufacture a large
variety of products, including aircraft, asbestos, boilers,
chemicals, galvanized metals, iron and copper tubing,
steel rails, and tin-plated metals.

Agriculture. Because of the many mountains, crops
are grown mainly in lowland areas along the coasts and
in the river valleys. The chief crops are barley, oats,
potatoes, turnips, and wheat. The beef and dairy cattle
raised on most of the farms provide butter, cheese, beef,
and hides. Farmers raise sheep in the mountain areas
where the land is too steep for cultivation. Wales ex-
ports large quantities of wool.

Social and Cultural Achievements

Education. The public education system resembles
that of England, but coeducational schools are more
cormnon in Wales (see Engl.^nd [Education]). The law
requires children between the ages of 5 and 15 to at-
tend school. The University of \Vales was founded in
1893. It has four colleges, located at Abeiystwyth,
Bangor, Cardiff", and .Swansea.

The Arts. Wales is a singing countiy'. .According to an
old saying, when two Welshmen get together, they
form a chorus. Most Welshmen like to sing, either alone
or in groups. Church services feature singing, and most
Welsh songs have a hymnlike quality. Two of the most
famous songs, sung in all parts of the world, are "Ar
Hyd y Nos" ("All Through the Night") and '■Rh>ie!-
gyrch Gwyr Harlech" ("Men of Harlech").

During the Middle .\ges, the people held contests
called cisteddjods (pronounced ehs TETH Jahd~) to
reward the best poets and harpists. The custom \vas
revived in the 1800's, and today the National Eisteddfod
of \\' ales meets for a w-eek every August. The festival
meets in various cities, alternately in nortliern and
southern Wales. Thousands of Welshmen from many
countries, including the United States, attend the
Eisteddfods. Artists compete for prizes in literature,

WALES

music, painting, and sculpture. Prizes are also awarded
for potteiy, embroideiy, knitting, and a number of
other crafts.

Literature. The tradition of Welsh music and poetry
goes back to the days of the ancient bards, or wandering
poets (see B.^rd). Children learn ancient folk stories in
school and at home. .Some of these tales tell of the
legendary exploits of King Arthur and his knights.

The Gododdiii is a great Welsh poem that was
probably written in the a.d. 500's. It describes a battle
near Catterick, Yorkshire. Ancient Welsh legends appear
in the .Mabinogion, a collection of prose tales based on
old Celtic myths. One of the greatest Welsh poets,
Dafydd ap Gwilym, lived during the 1 300's. His verse
deals with nature and love themes.

During the Reformation. William Morgan translated
the Bible into Welsh. This translation did much to
preserve the language. Many modern Welsh authors use
their own language. Other Welsh creative vvriters write
in English. The most famous \\'elshman to write in
English in the mid-1900"s was a poet. Dylan Thomas.

Painting. Like most rural countries, Wales has had
few famous painters. Augustus John is the only world-
famous Welsh artist. He painted portraits of George
Bernard Shaw, David Lloyd George, William Buder
Yeats, and other famous men.

\ Religion. The people are deeply religious. Nearly all
are Protestant, and many belong to the Methodist
Church. The Mediodist revival of the 1700's had a
great influence in Wales. By 181 1, so many Welshmen
belonged to the Methodist Church that it formally
separated from the Church of England. The Welsh
Church Act of 1914 provided that the Church of
England would no longer be the state church of Wales.

Government

Wales is part of the LInited Kingdom, and sends 36
representatives to the British parliament (see Gre.\t
Britain [Government]). The British Home Secretary, a
member of the British cabinet, also serves as Minister
of Welsh Affairs. \\'elsh members of parliament are
usually members of the Liberal or Labour parties. A
Welsh Liberal, David Lloyd George, became British
Prime Minister during World War I, in 1916.

Local government resembles that of England. Wales
is divided into 13 counties, called shires. A Lord Lieu-
tenant and a iV/cr/^ represent the monarch in each shire.
The shires are divided into parishes, boroughs, towns,
and cities. Elected councils govern the shires, cities,
and towns.

History

Early Inhabitants. No one knows how long men have
lived in what is now Wales. Cmde stone tools found
along the coasts show that primitive men lived there
at least 12,000 years ago. Historians call the first people
who lived in the countr\' Iberians. Men who knew how
to use bronze tools came to Wales about 2000 b.c. These
peoples taught the Iberians how to work with metals,
iarm the land, and build ships. Celtic invaders con-
quered \Valcs after about 600 B.C.

The Period of Invasions. The Romans invaded Wales
in the a.d. 60's. Roman civilization made litde im-

WALES

pression on the life of the original inhabitants of the
land, but it had a great influence on their language.
The Romans and later invaders of Wales built roads,
walls, castles, and cathedrals, but only ruins remain.

The Roman armies returned to Italy in the early
400's. Soon aftei-ward. Angles and Saxons from what is
now northern Germany conquered the eastern, central,
and southern parts of the island of Great Britain. The
Saxons gradually conquered the British tribes living
in Cornwall (south of VVales) and in Strathclyde (north
of Wales). But the Britons who took refuge in the wild,
mountainous region of what is now Wales kept their
independence for hundreds of years.

The long struggle against the Saxons helped form
the character of the Welsh people. They owed nothing
to Saxon institutions, and refused to accept Saxon
rulers. Their only recognized nilers were the descendants
of early tribal princes. The Welsh raided the Saxons
constantly. A Saxon king, Ofl'a, dug a trench and built
a wall to mark the boundary between his kingdom and
Wales. This barrier is known as OJfa's Dike, and still
stands from the River Dee to the River Wye.

Struggle Against the English. William the Conqueror
subdued England between 1066 and 1071. He declared
himself lord of Wales. He gave lands along the border
between England and Wales to Norman barons to keep
the Welsh m check. These men, called lords oj the
marches, built castles along die border, and gradually
expanded their lands. Soon they held most of the
central and southern parts of Wales. Sometimes the
Welsh chieftains accepted English overlords in order to
keep their lands. But more often they fought for their
independence. In the 12U0"s, the Welsh prince Llewelyn
ap Griffith won control of much of the country. King
Henry III of England recognized him as Prince oj Wales
in 1267. In return for the title, Llewelyn had to recog-
nize Henry as his overlord. But, in 1282, Llewelyn
refused to accept Henry's son, Edward I, as overlord.
Llewelyn was killed in a battle against Edward's troops,
and the Welsh revolt collapsed.

Edward I issued the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1 284.
This decree placed North Wales directly under English
rule. It divided Llewelyn's territory into counties under
English sherifli's. English barons built great fortified
castles as bases for controlling the country. The castles

RED-LETTER DATES IN WALES

A.D. 60-80 Roman armies conquered Wales.
560-589 Saint David, the patron saint of Wales,

preached in Wales.
907-948 King Howell the Good, the lawgiver of Wales,

ruled the country.
1156-1165 Owen Gwyncdd defeated three English ex-
peditions sent by Henry II to subdue him.
1282 King Edward I of England conquered Wales and

killed Llewelyn ap Griffith, Prince of Wales, in

battle.
1400-1410 Owen Glcndower revolted against English

rule.
1485 Henry Tudor, a Welsh prince, became King Henry

VII of England.
1536 King Henry VIII united Wales and England.
1588 William Morgan translated the Bible into Welsh.
1735 Griffith Jones and Howell Harries began the

Methodist revival in Wales.

at Caernarvon and Harlech were among the most im-
posing fortresses of the Middle Ages. In 1301, Edward
gave the title Prince of Wales to his son.

The proud Welsh revolted against the English many
times. The rebel Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwr)
(1359P-1416?) drove the English out in 1402. But he lost
all his lands in later battles. After many years of revolt, a
Welsh family, the House of Tudor, came to the throne
of England. Two English royal families, York and
Lancaster, had fought for many years for possession of
the throne (see Wars of the Roses). A Welshman,
Owen Tudor, married Catherine of Valois, widow of
Henry V of the House of Lancaster. Their grandson
became Henry VII of England in 1485. He married the
heiress of the House of York, uniting the two families
(see Henry [VI IJ).

Union. The people slowly accepted the idea of union
with England. In 1536, Henry VII's son, Henry VIII,
joined the two countries under the same system of laws
and government. All Wales was divided into counties,
and was given representation in the English Parliament.
English became the official language of Wales.

After 1 536, the history of Wales became mingled with
that of England and Great Britain. For events since
1536, see England (History); Great Britain (His-
tory). David VS'illiams

Related Articles in World Book include:
Biographies
Bradley, Francis H. Lloyd George, David

John, Augustus E. Owen (Robert)

Lawrence, Thomas E. Templeton, Alec A.

Llewellyn, Richard Williams, Emlyn

Cities
Aberystwyth Cardiff Rhondda

Caernarvon Merthyr Tydfil Swansea

LlanfairpwUgwyngyllgogerychwy rndrobwl 1 1 landysilio-

gogogoch

History
Celt David, Saint Prince of Wales

Physical Features
Dee, River Severn, River Snowdon

Unclassified
Clothing (color Leek Saint David's

picture, Europe) Day

Outline
I. Ttie Land and Its Resources

A. Location, Size, and

Surface Features

B. Rivers and Bays
II. The People and Their Work

A. The People G. Cities

B. Way of Life D. Mining

III. Social and Cultural Achievements

A. Education B. The ."Xrts

IV. Government
V. History

Questions

How does Wales compare in size with your state or
province? In population?

Who were the Iberians? The lords oJ Ihe marches?

What is Ojfa's Dike? An eisteddfod? Snowdon?

Why is there so much sheep farming in Wales?

What political parties do Welsh members of Parlia-
ment usually belong to?

What does the name Cymru mean? The name Wales?

How and when was Wales united with England?

What is the meaning of "wearing the leek"?

WALES, PRINCE OF. See Prince of Wales.

C. Climate

D. Natural Resources

E. Manufacturing

F. .■\griculture

C. Religion

WALK. See Horse (Gaits).

WALKER, JAMES JOHN (1881-1946), served as
Democratic mayor of New York City from 1926 to 1932.
Handsome, debonair, and fun-loving, he came to sym-
bolize the "roaring twenties." In 1932, Governor Frank-
lin D. Roosevelt called Walker to Albany to explain
corruption in the city's affairs. Investigation showed
that Walker had been more careless than crooked, but
his reputation was injured, and he resigned as mayor.
He was bom in New York City. John a. Garraty

WALKER, JOHN. See M.\tch (The First Match).

WALKER, LEROY POPE (1817-1884), scr\-ed in 1861
as the first Confederate secretaiy of war. He was ap-
pointed because he was a leading Alabama secessionist.
As war secretary, he worked hard to raise troops and
obtain war materials for the Confederacy. But he had
little or no influence on military strategy. The success
of the Confederate armies during the first year of the
Civil War owed much to his efforts. Walker later be-
came a Confederate brigadier general. He was bom in

HimtS\'ille. .Ala. Richard N. Current

WALKER, MARY EDWARDS (1832-1919), was a pio-
neer woman physician and dress reformer. She became
known for her insistence on wearing men's clothes. This
was more radical than the ""bloomers" of other reform-
ers (see Bloomer, Ameli.\ Jenks). Miss Walker served
with distinction as a war nurse and surgeon with the
Union .\rm\' during the Civil War. .After the war, she
returned to her small medical practice and independent
suffrage work. .She was born in Oswego, N.Y. Louis Filler

WALKER, MICKEY. See Boxing (picture).

WALKER, WALTON HARRIS (1889-1950), command-
ed United Nations ground forces inider General Douglas
Mac.Arthur during the Korean War. Walker served in
France during World War I. During World War II, he
led the armored corps that raced across Germany to
Linz, Austria, in 1 945. Walker was commander of the
United .States 8th Amry in Japan when the Korean War
broke out. He was killed in a jeep accident in Korea.
Walker was bom in Belton, Tex., and was graduated
from the U..S. Military Academy in 1912. Maurice Matloff

See also Kore.^n W.^r (Early Days of the War).

WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860), was an American
filibuster (military adventurer). He tried to make him-
self niler of two Central American republics.

In 1 853, Walker gathered a company of soldiers and
tried to conquer Lower C^alifornia and the state of
Sonora, both in Mexico. His attempt failed, and United
States officials arrested him for violating neutrality
laws. He was freed, and in 1855 he led a successful revo-
lution in Nicaragua. For nearly a year he ruled as presi-
dent, but then was forced to leave.

Walker tried to gain control of Honduras in 1860.
but the Honduran government captured and executed
him. He was born in Nashville, Tenn. Wavne Gard

.See also Filibuster.

WALKER ACT OF 1846 was a bill by Secretaiy of the
Treasuiy Robert J. Walker. It was the first U.S. tariff
measure based on value rather than quantity of im-
ported goods. The act fixed moderate import duties.

WALKIE-TALKIE is a small, portable, two-way radio.
It is powered by a batter\', and has a range up to five
miles. A collapsible antenna transmits and receives the
messages. The walkie-talkie contains very small tubes,
resistors, and transformer coils. In many sets, tiny tran-

WALL OF CHINA

sistors are used instead of tubes. The walkie-talkie is
equipped with a carr\'ing harness by which it can be
strapped to the operator's back. The total weight of the
unit is about 25 pounds. A smaller two-way radio,
called the handie-talkie, can be carried in the hand.
Policemen sometimes use them to report crimes and to
receive instructions.

The walkie-talkie has been widely used by the United
.States armed forces since early in World War II, and
by ships in convoy. It also provides communications
between supervisors and scattered work crews in such
fields as civil defense and surveying. Franklin m. Reck

WALKING, as a competitive sport, is a race between
two or more persons, or against time. The 20,000-meter
walk and the 50,000-meter walk are events in the
Ohinpic Games.

In order to gain speed, competitive walkers developed
a method of walking called the '"heel-and-toe." \ long
stride lands the foot on the heel and swings the walker
foAvard to put his weight quickly on the toe. The toe
then acts as a springboard for die next stride. At least
part of one foot must be kept on the ground at all times.
An ordinaiy walker covers a mile in 12 to 15 minutes.
A heel-and-toe expert can do it in 6j minutes, onlv 2.V
minutes slower than a mile runner. .An extra 10 to 16
inches on the stride makes the difference.

The walking contest was popular in England for hun-
dreds of years before it was introduced into the United
States during the I870's. In the United States, con-
testants often competed in six-day marathons on indoor

oval tracks. Richard G. Hackenberg

WALKING LEAF. .See Leaf Insect.

WALKING STICK is an insect that looks like a twig.
The strange appearance of this insect protects it against
its enemies. There are about a dozen different kinds of
these insects in the United .States. The common walk-
ing stick of the Eastern States has a slender bod>' which
is 2 to 3 inches long. Its legs are long and awkward. L^n-
like most insects, it has no wings. The walking stick
varies in color. .Sometimes it is brown and sometimes
green. This makes it hard to sec on either lifeless brown
twigs or fresh green ones.
It is a greedy leaf-eater.
Sometimes it harms walnut,
oak, locust, hickory, and
other trees. Usually the
female drops her eggs on
the ground. The young are
neglected and few sur\T\'e.

Scienlific Classification.

Walking sticks make up the
family Pltasini dae. The
common walking stick is
genus Diaphcioriii'id, species
D.Jemorata. cabl d. Duncan

Related Articles in World Book include:

Aircraft Carrier

Battleship

Corvette

Cruiser

Destroyer

Escort Carrier

Depth Charge
Guided Missile

Kinds of .Ships

Frigate
Galleon
Galley
Gunboat
Landing Craft
Mine Layer

Weapons

UNCL.'kSSIFIED

Navy
Na\'y,

United States

Mine Sweeper
Privateer
FT Boat
.Submarine
Torpedo Boat
Trireme

Mine, Military
Torpedo

Task Force
Turret

Outline
I. Ancient Navies V. Amphibious Warsiiip

II. Ships of the Line VI. The Winged Warship

III. Steam ond Steel VII. Rise of the Submarine

IV. Birth of the Battleship

Questions

What were the two sources of power for early warships?

What made the \'iking long boats efficient warships?

How did the .Spanish .\rmada affect warship design?

How were warships improved in the mid-1800"s?

What effect did the battle of the Monitor and the Mnri-
juack ha\'c on ship design?

In what way was H.M.S. Dreadnought important?

How did battleship tactics of World War I resemble
those at Trafalgar?

What was the difference between a battleship and
battle cruiser?

What weapon do destroyers use against heavy surface
ships?

What freed the submarine from its earlier limitations?

WART is a horny growth on the surface of the skin.
Warts may appear an\^vhere, in a wide range of shapes,
sizes, and numbers. Flat warts that giow on the sole of
the foot look like corns and hurt like tacks. Warts on a
man's face may form little beard-like projections. In
moist parts of the body, warts may grow into masses
like tiny cauliflowers. Warts can even appear on the
lips or tongue. Warts are infections caused by viruses. If

WARWICK

a wart is scratched open, the virus may spread by con-
tact to another part of the body or to another person.
C^ontrar)' to superstition, touching the skin of a toad
will not cause warts.

The viruses that cause warts live in cells of the surface
layer of the skin, and do not infect the deep layer. The
thickened surface layer forms folds into which litde
blood vessels grow. Sometimes warts go away without
treatment, perhaps because immunity to the infection
develops. Wart vaccine cures infections in cattle, but it
is not a practical treatment for human beings. Physicians
often remove warts by burning off surface skin. This
does little harm to the deep layers. X-ray treatment is
sometimes useful. Treatment for any wart should be ad-
ministered by a doctor. Richard L. Sutton, Jr.

WART HOG is an African swine, and one of the

world's ugliest mammals. Great curved upper tusks pro-
trude from its huge flattened head. These tusks ma>' be
as much as 2 feet long on a big boar. Between the tusks
and the eyes are three pairs of large ''warts" from which
the hog gets its name. The coarsely grained pale gray
hideof the wart hog is thinly sprinkled with stiff, brown-
ish-gray hairs. A thin mane of long bristly hair hangs
over its back and head. .\ large boar may weigh over
200 pounds and it may be about 30 inches high.
The Boer farmers call the wart hog vlakte-vark, or

The Wart Hog Is One of the World's Ugliest Animals.

pig of the plains. It lives in dry, sandy country from
southern .Africa to Ethiopia and prefers open forest \\ith
plenty of thickets for protection. The wart hog travels in
small family groups. Old boars, however, usually prefer
to live by themselves. The sow may produce as many as
six to eight young at a time. Ordinarily, only half that
number are born at one time. VN'art hogs often use bur-
rows that have been made by other animals. They eat
almost everything — roots, plants, birds' eggs, and even
small mammals.

Scientific Classification. The wart hog belongs to the
famiK' Sun/<u\ It is genus Pkacocliofrus, species P. aethe-
optciiS. Victor h. Cahalane

WARTBURG COLLEGE. See Universities and Col-
leges (table).

WARTON, THOMAS. See Poet Laure.^te.

WARWICK. See England (color map. The 39 His-
toric Counties of England).

WARWICK, ]fAU'R ihk. R.I. (pop. 68,504; alt. 25
ft.), consists of a number of villages administered under
a single government. The city lies on the Pawtuxet

WARWICK, EARL OF

River in easKentral Rhode Island (see Rhode Island
[political map]). Industries produce textiles and metal
products. Narragansett Bay, a popular summer resort,
lies nearby. The area was first settled in 1643. It was
named for Robert, Earl of Warwick, who helped the
colonists gain the rights to the area. In 1931, Warwick
received its city charter. It has a mayor-council form of

government. Clarkson a. Collins III

WARWICK, M'.-l///? /A, EARLOF(1428-1471),RicHARD
Ne\'1LLE, was a famous English soldier and statesman.
He is known to English history as the Kingmaker , and as
the Last oj the Barons.

Warwick was one of the most powerful men in Eng-
land during the Wars of the Roses. He commanded an
army with great skill at the Battle of Saint Albans in
1455. In 1460 war broke out again. Warwick again
took the field and won the Batde of Northampton, cap-
turing King Henry VI. But later in the year the \'orkists
were defeated at Wakefield. The Duke of York was
captured and killed. Warwick became head of the
\'orkists as guardian of his cousin. Prince Edward.

Another battle was fought at Saint Albans in 1461,
and Warwick was defeated. But he boldly proclaimed
Edward, the Duke of York, king of England, and suc-
ceeded in having him crowned. Edward and Warwick
soon quarreled. In 1469 Warwick struck a bargain with
Margaret, the wife of ex-king Henry VI. Henry landed
in England and forced King Edward to flee.

Warwick then restored Queen Margaret and Henry
VI to the throne. But in 1471 Warwick met Edward in
battle again, at Barnet, and was killed, andre Maurois

WARWICK, EARL OF (1587-1658), Robert Rich,
was an English colonial administrator. He sewed as a
member of the Virginia Company and of the Council of
the New England Company. He helped found the
colonies of Plymouth (Mass.), Connecticut, Virginia,
and Rhode Island.

His ship, the Treasurer, engaged in privateering
against the .Spaniards, and in 1619 brought over some
of the first Negroes to Virginia. In 1643 Warwick was
appointed Lord High Admiral and Governor-in-Chief
of all the English royal colonies. Ian c. c. Graham

WASATCH RANGE, W AW sack, is a mountain range
that extends for about 140 miles from southern Idaho
into northern Utah. Its abrupt western face forms the
western front of the Rocky Mountains and the eastern
rim of the Great Basin.

Salt Lake City lies at the foot of the range. The aver-
age elevation of the Wasatch range is 10,000 feet.
Mount Timpanogos (11,750 feet) is the highest peak.
Steep narrow valleys cut the western side of the range.
The eastern slope is less steep (see Utah [physical map|).
See also S.\lt L.^ke City (picture). John h. garland

WASH, THE, is a shallow bay off the North Sea on the
east coast of England. The bay is about 20 miles long
and 1 5 miles wide. The Wash is a North Sea fishing
center. It receives waters of the Ouse, Witham, Wel-
land, and Nene rivers.

WASHAKIE (1804?- 1900) was a chief of the eastern
Shoshoni Indians in LItah and Wyoming. He was
noted for his steady friendship for the white man and his
relentless warfare against his tribal enemies.

Washakie furnished aid to many immigrants moving

west over the Oregon Trail, and also sent some Indians
to General George Crook in the 1870's to serve as scouts
against the Sioux.

He spent his later years in splendor as the ruler,
guide, and counselor of his people. Washakie renounced
many of the old Indian customs and joined the Prot-
estant Episcopal Church. VVh-Liam H. Gilbert

WASHBURN was the family name of five brothers who
became distinguished in business and politics. Three of
them served at the same time in the L'.S. House of Rep-
resentatives. They were all born in Livermore, Me.

Israel Washburn (1813-1883) helped organize the
Republican party in 1854. W'ashburn represented
Maine in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1851
to 1861, and was governor of Maine from 1861 to 1863.

Elihu Benjamin Washburne (I8I6-1887), an Illinois
Republican, served in the LLS. House of Representa-
tives from 1853 to 1869. He was called the Watchdog of
the Treasury because he favored economy in government.
He sei-ved as President Ulysses S. Grant's Secretary of
State in 1869, and as U.S. minister to France from 1869
to 1877. Washburne added the "e" to his name when
he was a boy. He moved to Illinois in 1840.

Cadwoiiader Colden Washburn (1818-1882) built a
fortime as an owner of lumber and flour mills and rail-
roads in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Washburn moved
to Wisconsin in 1842. A Republican, he served in the
L^S. House of Representatives from 1855 to 1861 and
from 1867 to 1871. He served as governor of Wisconsin
from 1872 to 1874.

Charles Ames Washburn (1822-1889). a California
newspaper editor and author, became United States
minister to Paraguay in 1863. In 1868, he fled to the
LInited States when Paraguay accused Americans of
helping Brazil in the war Paraguay fought with Brazil,
Argentina, and L^ruguay.

William Drew Washburn (1 83 1-1 91 2) became the di-
rector of Pillsbury-Washburn Mills in Minnesota in
1895. By the early 1900's, these flour mills were the
world's largest. Washburn also owned lumber mills and
railroads and sold real estate. He served as a Republican
in the L'.S. House of Representatives from 1879 to 1885,
and in the U.S. Senate from 1889 to 1895.

WASHBURN, ICHABOD. See Iron and Steel (Fa-
mous Men).

WASHBURN, SHERWOOD LARNED (1911- ), an
American anthropologist, became noted for his studies
of human and ape anatomy. He taught at Columbia
LTniversity from 1939 to 1947, and then became pro-
fessor and head of the department of anthropology at
the University of Chicago.

In 1948, he traveled in southern and eastern Africa,
studying the physical traits of the Bushman and Bantu
tribes. Washburn became editor of the American Journal
oj Physical Anthropology in 1955. He was born in Cam-
bridge, Mass. MoRDECAi L. Gabriel

WASHBURN UNIVERSITY OF TOPEKA is a coeduca-
tional school in 'Fopeka, Kans. The university has col-
leges of liberal arts and sciences and education, and a
school of law. An Air Force ROTC unit is on campus.
The university was chartered in 1865 by the Congrega-
tional Church under the name Lincoln College.

Washburn University became a municipal institution
in 1941. For enrollment, see Universities and Col-
leges (table). Bryan S. Stoffer

WASHING MACHINES

1850

Late 1860's

The Washing Machine of 1770 was a simple hand-
operated plunger. Laborsaving mechanical machines
were invented in the 1 800's. The first electrical machine
came out in the early 1 900'5. Great improvements on it
have resulted in today's completely automatic washer.

Early IVOO's

•-*

WASHING MACHINE. For thousands of years, one of
the most tiresome of household tasks was the washing of
clothes and linens. In early times, women often washed
clothes on smooth stones at the edge of running streams.
The clodies had to be pounded and rubbed by hand to
get them clean. In some primitive parts of the world
women still use such methods. For a long time, inventors
tried to figure out an easier wa>' to do such work. Even
the use of a washboard, wringer, and tubs required much
backbreaking labor. It was not until the modern wash-
ing machine was invented that women were freed from
this hard work.

In 1858. Hamilton E. Smith, of Philadelphia, pat-
ented one of the first mechanical washing machines.
The first machines had revolving paddles in a boxlike
tub. When a crank was turned at the side of the tub,
paddles turned inside the tub, pushing the clothes
through the \vater to force out the dirt. But these ma-
chines still required tiresome hand operation, and they
were often hard on the clothes. In 1910, an electrically
powered machine was developed. Hand work was no
longer necessan'. This machine was invented by Alva J.
Fisher and manufactured by the Hurley Machine Com-
pany of Chicago. Since then electric washing machines
have been improved constandy and many com-eniences
have been added. Today many American homes are
equipped with this work saver.

The electric washing machine has a tub or lank and
an electric motor (j horsepower). The device in die center
of the tub that does the actual washing is called an

agitator or turbulator. The agitator does the work of hu-
man hands by constantly swishing the clothes around in
the soapy water until the dirt has been removed. There
are different types of agitators. Most of them are fixed to
a rod or shaft in the center of the tub. The rod may move
up and down in the tub at die same time that it turns
from side to side. The agitator attached to it thus moves
in two directions at the same time. It moves the clothes
with it and causes the water to circulate through them.
Some tubs have no agitator, but have an inner tub with
many small holes through which the water runs back
and forth between the two tubs. This increases the
action of the water and makes for faster washing. Some
types of electric washing machines have the agitator
or washing device attached to the lid of the tub. In
others, the tub revolves to supply the agitation.

Automatic washing machines have a complete set of
controls that regulate the washing and rinsing time, the
water temperaftire, and the amount of agitation. They
connect to the hot and cold water pipes. Automatic
washers usually have an inner and outer mb. The wash-
ing takes place in the inner tub, which spins around
rapidly after the clothes have been washed or rinsed.
The spinning throws the water up and out of the inner
tub into the outer tub. The water is then pumped out.
The clothes are now partially dry, and ready for hanging
on a line or dr\'ing by machine. Raymond f. y.^tes

See also Advertising (picture. In the Late 1800's);
Appli.xnces; \ow\ (color picture); L.^undry.

WASHING SODA. See Soda.

Boll and Ira Spring

Mount Shuksan Rises Behind Picture Lake

Washington (blue) ranks 20th in size among all the states, and
is the smallest of the Pacific Coast States (gray).

Ray Alkes.m

Locks near Seattle

A Field of Washington Daffodils

1 he contnhutors of this article are C. Brewster Coulter,
I'ujfessor of History at the Vniversity of Puget Sound; Howard
J. Critchjield, Professor of Geography at IVestern Washington
State College; and ,\''ard Jones, chief editorial writer of the
Seattle Post-Intelligcncer.

WASHINGTON

THE EVERGREEN STATE

WASHINGTON is the only state named for a Presi-
dent. It was named in honor of George Washington.
The state Ues on the Pacific Coast in the northwestern
part of the United States. Its location makes it a gate-
way for land, sea, and air travel to Alaska and to Asian
countries across the Pacific Ocean.

Washington is famous for scenery of breath-taking
beauty and sharp contrasts. High mountains rise above
thick evergreen forests and sparkling coastal waters.
The jimglelike forests of the Olympic Peninsula in the
xs'est are among the rainiest places in the world. But
the flat semidesert land east of the Cascade Moimtains
stretches for miles without a single tree.

Snow-covered peaks such as Mount Adams and
Mount Saint Helens tower above the foothills and low-
lands around them. Mount Rainier, the highest moun-
tain in the state, appears to '"float" on the horizon
southeast of Seatde and Tacoma. On a clear day, per-
sons in the Seattle area can also see Mount Baker to the
north, the Olympic Mountains to the west, and the
Cascades to the east. Lodges and chair lifts in the moun-
tains attract thousands of tourists and skiers.

Washington's coasdine has himdreds of bays and in-
lets that make exceUent harbors. Ships from all parts of
the world dock at Bellingham, Seattle, Tacoma, and
other ports on Puget Sound. Washington also has im-
portant shipping centers on the Pacific Ocean and
the Columbia River. Washington fishing fleets catch
salmon, halibut, and other fishes in the chilly waters
off the northern Pacific Coast. The state is famous for
seafoods, especially Chinook and sockeye salmon.

Washington's nickname, the Evergreen State, comes
from its many firs, hemlocks, pines, and other evergreen
trees. Thick forests cover many acres in Washington,
especially on the western slopes of the Cascades. The
state produces large amounts of lumber, pulp and paper,
and other wood products. The state's nickname also
suggests the lush green lowlands of western Washington.
A mild, moist climate makes this region of the state

Catching Crobs on the North Peninsula of Willopa Boy

excellent for daily farming and flower-bulb production.

East of the Cascades, farmers raise livestock and
wheat on large ranches. They grow fruits and vegetables
in fertile, irrigated river valleys such as the Okanogan,
Wenatchee, and Yakima. Delicious apples produced in
these areas are a Washington specialty. Washington
leads the states in apple production.

Giant dams on the Columbia River and its tributaries
capture water for irrigation and power. The largest dam.
Grand Coulee, is one of the engineering wonders of the
world. Irrigation water is transforming the Columbia
Basin, where farmers raise large crops of vegetables on
land that once was dry and bare.

Washington contributes to the atomic age with an
atomic energy center near Richland. The center, known
as Hanford, includes the laboratories of Batelle-North-
west, a reseai'ch firm. Washington also has a part in the
space age. The Boeing Company, a leading producer of
jet aircraft, spacecraft, and hydrofoil boats, has head-
quarters in Seattle and plants in Renton.

Olympia is the capital of Washington, and Seattle is
the largest city. For the relationship of Washington to
other states in its region, see the article on the P.\ciFic
Co.\ST States.

FACTS IN BRIEF

Capital/ Olympia.

Government; Congress — U.S. Senators, 2; U.S. Repre-
sentatives, 7. Electoral Votes, 9. State Legislature — sena-
tors, 49; representatives, 99. Counties, 39. J'oting Age,
21 years.

Area; 68,192 square miles (including 1,483 square miles
of inland water), 20th in size among the states. Greatest
Distances, (east-west) 358 miles; (north-south) 240
miles. Coastline, 157 miles.

Elevation; Highest, Mount Rainier, 14,410 feet above sea
level. Lowest, sea level, along the Pacific Ocean.

Population: 2,853,214 (1960 census), 23rd among the
states. Density, 42 persons to the square mile. Distribu-
tion, urban, 68 per cent; rural, 32 per cent. Estimated
1965 Population, 3,105,000.

Chief Produtifs: /Manufacturing and Processing, airplanes, alu-
minum, petroleum products, processed-food products
(especially beet sugar, butter, canned and frozen
fruits and vegetables, fish, flour, meat products, and
milk), ships. Forest Products, Christmas trees, lumber,
paper, plywood, \'eneer strips, wood pulp. Agriculture,
beef cattle, berries (especially cranberries and straw-
berries), dairy products, flower bulbs (especially cro-
cus, daffodil, gladiolus, iris, lily, and tulip), fruits (es-
pecially apples, cherries, grapes, pears, and plums),
sugar beets, vegetables (especially asparagus, beans,
peas, and potatoes), wheat. Fishing Industry, cod, hali-
but, oysters, salmon (especially Chinook and sockeye).
Mining, lead, sand, gravel, stone, zinc.
Statehood: Nov. II, 1889, the 42nd state.
Slate Motto: Allci (Bye and Bye). This Indian word was
first used by pioneers at Seattle. They called their set-
tlement "New York-Alki."
State Song: "Washington, My Home." Words by Helen
Davis; music by Stuart Churchill.

WASHINGTON/^ .

Kjovernment

Constitution. Washington is governed under its orig-
inal constitution, adopted in 1889. The constitiuion has
been amended about 40 times. Amendments to the
constitution may be proposed by the state legislature, or
by a constitutional convention called by a majority of
the legislators with the approval of a majority of the
voters. All amendments must be approved by two-thirds
of the legislators in both houses, and then by a majority
of the voters in a state-wide election.

Executive. The governor of Washington serves a four-
year terra and may be re-elected an unlimited number of
times. He receives a yearly salary of $22,500. The gov-
ernor has the power to appoint more than 350 lesser
state officials. He may also fill vacancies that occur in
elective executive offices and among the superior and
supreme court judges. The governor may veto bills
passed by the legislature. Unlike most state governors,
he also has the power to veto individual items in any
kind of bill without killing the whole bill. For a list of
all the governors of Washington, see the History section
of this article.

Other top state officials are the lieutenant governor,
secretary of state, treasurer, auditor, attorney general,
superintendent of public instruction, commissioner of
public lands, and insurance commissioner. All these
officers are elected to four-year terms, and may be re-
elected an unlimited number of times. The superin-
tendent of public instruction is elected by nonpartisan
(no-party) ballot.

Legislature. Washington has 49 legislative districts
that send 49 senators and 99 representatives to the state
legislature. The voters of each district elect from one to
three representatives, depending on population. But
the house of representatives cannot have fewer than 63
members or more than 99. Each district also elects one
senator. The number of senators cannot be more than
a half or less than a third of the number of representa-
tives. The people elect senators to four-year terms and
representatives to two-year terms. Regular sessions of
both houses begin on the second Monday in January of
odd-numbered years. The law limits these sessions to 60
days. Rut the governor may call special sessions.

Washington Stale Dcpt. of Commerce

In June, 1964, the Supreme Court of the United
States ruled that representation in both houses of a
state's legislature must be apportioned on the basis of
ecjual population in all voting districts. On July 23,
1964, a federal court ordered the Washington legis-
lature to reapportion itself. In March, 1965, the legis-
lature passed a reapportionment plan that changed the
boundaries of the voting districts. The new plan made
the districts more equal in population.

Courts. The highest court in Washington is the state
supreme court. It has nine justices who are elected to
si.\-year terms. The voters elect three supreme court
justices in each general election, every two years. The
justice with the shortest remaining term serves as chief
justice. If two or more supreme court justices have equal
terms remaining, the other justices decide which one
will be chief justice.

Other Washington courts include county superior
courts, headed by one or more judges elected for four
years, and justiceof-the-peace courts, with justices
elected for four years.

Local Government. A 1948 amendment to the Wash-
ington constitution gave counties the right to choose
their own form of county government. In most of Wash-
ington's 39 counties, a three-member board of commis-
sioners has both executive and lawmaking powers. The
commissioners are elected to four-year terms. Other
county officials include the prosecuting attorney, super-
intendent of schools, sheriff, clerk, and treasurer. A
county may also have an auditor, assessor, coroner,
health officer, relief administrator, and other officials.

Washington has 262 incorporated cities and towns.
The state constitution provides that any city with a
population of 20,000 or more may have home rule. That
is, it may choose its own form of local government.
About 10 Washington cities have home rule. Some of
the home -rule cities have a council-manager form of
government, some a commission form, and some a
mayor-council form. Most smaller cities are governed
by a mayor and a city council.

Taxation. The state government receives about 80
per cent of its income from state taxes. Almost all the

The Capitol Group at Olympia, (ef^ forms the center of
Washington's state government. The Capitol, the supreme court
offices, the state library, and other government buildings shore
a 35-acre plot overlooking Puget Sound. The governor's mansion,
below, stands on a wooded hill behind the Capitol.

Merle Junk

'■'Wk

The State Seal

Symbols of Washington, the state seal and flag, bear a por-
trait of George Washington, for whom the stote was named. The
date 1 889 beneath the portrait is the year in which the state was
admitted to the Union. The green field of the flog represents the
green of Washington's forests. The seal was adopted in 1889,
ond the flag was adopted in 1925.

Bird and flower illustrations, courtesy of Ell Lilly and Company

rest comes from federal grants and other U.S. govern-
ment programs. Washington's main source of tax in-
come is a general retail sales tax. The state also receives
a large share of its income from excise taxes, such as
those on alcoholic beverages, motor fuels, and tobacco.
There are also taxes on public utilities and insurance,
and a license ta,x on motor vehicles.

Politics. In 1912j Washington cast its electoral votes
for the candidates of the Progressive party. Other\vise,
the state has voted about evenly between Republican
and Democratic presidential candidates. For the state's
voting record in presidential elections since 1892, see
Electoral College (table).

\'oters of farm areas and suburbs generally favor Re-
publican candidates. People in the cities of western
VVashington usually support the Democrats.

State Capitol in Olympia, called the Legislative Building, was
built between 1911 and 1935. Olympia has been the state
capital since Washington achieved statehood in 1889.

Washinj^on State Dcpt. of CuniniL-rce

The State Tree

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WASHINGTON MAP INDEX

Population

3.105.000 .Estimate 1965

2.853.214 I960

2.378.963 1950

1.736. 191 1940

1.563.396 1930

1.356.621 1920

1. 141.990 1910

518.103 1900

357.232 1890

75.116 1880

23.955 1870

ir.594 18B0

1.201 1850

Metropolitan
Areas

Seattle-Everett 1.107.213

Spokane 278.333

Tacoma 321,590

Counties

Adams 9.929.. B 8

Asotin 12.909. C 9

Benton 62.070. C 7

Chelan 40.744, B 6

Clallam 30.022. .A 2

Clark 93.809. .0 4

Columbia ...4.569..C 8

Cowlitz 57,801. C 4

Douglas 14.890. .B 7

Ferry 3.889. .A 8

Franklin ...23.342. C 7

Garfield .... 2.976. C 9

Grant 46.477. .B 7

Grays

Harbor . .54.465. .8 2

Island 19.638. A 4

Jefferson . . .9.639 B 2

King 935.014. B 5

Kitsap 84.176 .B 4

Kittitas 20.467. B 6

Klickitat .. 13.455. D 5

Lewis 41.858. C 4

Lincoln 10.919. B 8

Mason 16.251. B 3

Okanogan ..25.520. A 6

Pacific 14. 674. C 3

Pend Oreille 6.914. .A 9

Pierce . . . .321.590. .C 4

San Juan . . .2.872. .A 3

Skagit 51.350. .A 4

Skamania . . .5.207..D 4

Snohomish 172.199. A 5

Spokane . .278. 333. 8 9

Stevens 17,884. A 8

Thurston .. 55,049. C 4

Wahkiakum . 3.426. C 3
Walla

Walla ...42.195..C 8

Whatcom . .70,317. A 4

Whitman . .31.263 B 9

Yakima . . . 145. 1 12 . . C 6

Cities and Towns

Aberdeen .. 18,741. C 3

Addy 245.. A 9

Ahtanun 350. C 6

AJIune 100. C 4

Albion 291. C 9

Aldcrton 300.. D 3

Alderwood

Manor- . .4.000. B 4
Algona . . .1.311 ..B 4

Allentown 600 . D 2

Allyn BOO B 4

Almira 414. B 8

Amboy 150 .0 4

Anacortes . . .8,414. .A 4

Anatone 90. C 9

Annapolis 600. .D 2

Appleyard

(South

Wenatchee) .950. 8 6

Ardenvoir 200. B 6

Ariel 75. .D 4

Arlington .,.2,025 A 4

Asotin 745. °C 9

Auburn 11,933 B 4

Battle

Ground 888 D 4

Bay Center .. .600. .C 3
Beacon Hill* 1,019.. C 4
Beaux Arts* .351. D 3

Belfair 400. .8 4

Bellevue ... 12,809. D 3
Bellingham 34, 688. "A 4
Benton City .1.210 C 7

Bethel" 300. B 4

Beverly Park .950. B 4

Bickleton 100. .0 6

Big Lake" 300. A 4

Bingen 636. .D 5

Birch Bay* .. .350. A 4
Black

Uiamond .1.026.8 4

Blaine 1. 735.. A 4

Blanchard . . . 200 A 4

Bluecreek 45. .A 9

Bluestcm 8 8

Blyn 50. .A 4

Bonney Lake . 645. .B
Bossburg A

Bothell 2.237.

Bremerton .28. 922.. B
Bremerton

East" 2.539. B

Brewster 940.. A

Bridgeport 876. A

Brinnon 100. .B

Brooklyn 25.. C

Browns

Point* 600.

Brownstown . . .60.
Bryn Mawr . 10.000.

Buckley 3.538.

Bucoda 390.

Buena 670.

Burbank 600.

.B
C
.0

B
C
.C
C
Burien* .. .10.000. .B

Burley 250. .D

Burlington . 2.968. .A

Burton 400. .D

Camas 5.666..D

Camp Sealth D

Cape Horn D

Carbonado . . . 424. .8

Carlsborg 250. .A

Carnation ....490.. 8

Carrolls 150. C

Carson 250. D

Cashmere ..1.891..B
Castle Rock .1.424. C
Cathlamet ....6I5.'»C
Centerville .... 100 . D
Central Park 1.622. C
Centralia . .8.586. C

Cattaroy 150. 8

Chehalis 5.199.0C

Chelan 2.402 B

Chelan Falls ..150. .8

Cheney 3.173. .8

Chesaw 50. .A

Chester D

Chewelah ...1.525. .A

Chico 300.. 8

Chimacum .... 100. .A

Chinook 350. C

Christopher D

Clallam Bay . .300.
Clarkston ...6.209

Clayton 240

Cle Elum . . .1.816

Clearlake 600.

Clearwater 70

Clinton" 800.

Clipper 65.

Clyde Hill .1.871

Colfax 2.860.OC

College Place 4,031 . .C

Colton 253. C

Columbia

Heights* ..2.227. C

Colvllle 3. 806. "A

Conconully ...108 A

Concrete 840. .A

Connell 906. C

Copalis Beach 350.. 8
Copalis

Crossing ....IOO..B

Corfu C

Cosmopolis . . 1.312. .C

Cougar 300. .C

Coulee City .. .654.8
Coulee Dam .1.344. B
Country

Homes*
Coupeville

Covada A

Cove I50..D

Covington 50 D

Cowiche 175.. C

Creston 317. B

Crewport 750.. C

Cromwell D

.1.600. 8
.740.0 A

Cumberland ..160

Curlew 100.. A

Cusik 299. A

Custer 400.. A

Daisy 30. A

Dalkena 30. A

Danville 80. .A

Darrington .1.272.. A

Dartford 30 D

Dash Point . . .300 D
Davenport I.494.0B
Day Island* . 500 B

Dayton 2.913. "C

Deeocreek .... 100. . D
Deer Park . .1.333

Doming 250

Des Moines .1.987

Disautel 50

Dishman . . . .5.000

Dixie 250

Dockton 400

Doebay 50

Doty 260

Dryad C

Dryden 300. B

Duncan . D

Dungeness 75. .A

Du Pont 354. 8

Duvall" 345 B

Eagledale' .500 D

East Farms D

East Olympia .500 C

.300.
203

.6.000.

477

East Port

Orchard*
East

Redmond*
East

Spokane*
East Stanwood

(part of

Stanwood)
East

Wenatchee
East

Wenatchee

Bench*
Eastgate*
Easton
Eastsound
Eatonville
Edgewater*
Edgewood
Edison ....
Edmonds .

Edwall

Elberton . . .
Electric City

Elk

Ellensburg

Elma

Elmer City*
Eltopia ....
Endicott . . .
Enetai, see

Bremerton

East

Ennis Creek

Entiat 357

Enumclaw . .3.269

Ephrata 6.548.

Espanola 25

Ethel 90

Eureka 25

Everett 40.304

Everson 431

Ewan 70

Fairfield 367

.383

2.327.

3.000

250

150.

896

350.

100.

150

8.016.

.165

.66

.404.

. .75

8,625.

1,811.

..265

. . . 70 .

..369

.8 4
D 3
B 9

A 4
8 6

B 6

Fairmont*
Fairview*
Fall City
Farmingto
Federal
Way*
Ferndale

. 1.227
. .2.758.
...560
... 1 76

.. .7.000.
...1.442.

Fife 1.463.

Fircrest ....3.565.
Fords

Prairie* ..1.404.

Forks 1.156.

Fort Worden

Four Lakes . . .250

Fox Island

Frances 100.

Freeman 55.

Friday

Harbor 706.

Fruitvale* ..3.345

Galvin 200

Garfield 607

Garret, see

Walla Walla

West

Geneva* 500

Gig Harbor .1.094

Glacier 50

Glenoma 50

Glenwood 300

Gold Bar 315

Golden

Goldendale .2.536.

Gorst* 950

Graham 75

Grand

Coulee ...1.058
Grandview .3.366
Granger ....1.424
Granite Falls .599
Grant Orchards
Grapeview . . 200

Grayland 550

Grays River ..100
Greenacres . .2.074

Hadlock 300

Hamilton 271

Harper 500

Harrah 284

Harrington . . .575

Hartline 206

Hatton* 65

Hay 75

Hayford 350

Hazel Dell* .2.500

Hazelwood

High Point .100

Hobarf 300

Hockinson 50

Home* 600

Hoodsport .. 580

Hooper 55

Hoquiam . 10.762

Houghton

Humptulips

Hunters 220

Hunts Point" .428
Huntsville ...100

Husum 15

Hyak 30

B 4

A 4

D 2

2.426.
110

C 6

B 8

B 7

B 8

C 9

D 8

Ilwaco

Inchelium ....

Index

Indianola* . . . .

Ingleford

Inteicity* . . . 1.

lone

Irvin*

Issaquah ... I,

Johnson

Joyce

Juanita* ....1,

Kahlotus

Kalama 1,

Kanaskat

Kapowsin . . . .

Keller

Kelso 8,

Kenmore ...1.
Kennewick .14,
Kennydale .3,

Kent 9,

Kettle Falls . .

Keyport*

Kiesling

Kingston

Kiona .......

Kirkland ...6,

Kittitas

Klickitat

Kosmos

La Center* . . .

Lacey 6.

La Conner . . . .

Lacrosse

Lake Bay

Lake Burien

Heights- .2
Lake City

(part of

Lakewood

Center) ...
Lake Forest

Park- 1

Lake Hills* .4
Lake Kapowsin
Lake Louise* .
Lake Sawyer*
Lake Serene*
Lake Stevens I
Lakeside

( part of

Chelan) ...
Lakeview* . . .
Lakewood
Lakewood

Center*

Lamona

Lament

Langley

Lapush

Latah

Laurel

Laurel Heights
Leadpoint . . .
Leavenworth 1.

Lebam

Leland

Lexington . . . .

Liberty

Liberty Lake . .

Lincoln

Lind

Littlerock

Long Beach . . .
Longbranch . . .
Longview . .23.

Loomis

Loon Lake . . . .

Lowell 1.

Lyie

Lyman

Lynden 2.

Lynwood* . . .7,

Mabana

Mabton

Maiden

Malone

Malott

Manchester ...
Mansfield . . . .

Manson

Maple Valley .
Marblemount

Marcellus

Marcus

Marengo

Marietta

Marine Drive'
Markham . . . .

Marl in

Marshall

Maryhill

Marysville . .3,
Mason City

(part of

Coulee Dam)

Mattawa'

Mayfield

McCleary . . . 1,
McKenna* ....
McMurray . . . .

Mead

Medical

Lake 4,

Medina 2,

518. C
100 A
1 58 . . B
700. B

475. B
648. -A
300 .. B
870 B
.30. C
.35 A

131 .
088
100
180.

25 A
,379 OC
000. .8

244.
500.

017. .8
905. A
500. .8
D

475. B
150. C
025. B
536. C
850. D
200. C
244. D
630. .8
638.. A
463. C
.75 D

500.. 8
500. .8

500. B
300. .8
600. B
538 .. A

.20.

450. .B
1 00 . . A

000. B
.20 .8
111. B
448. A
250. .8
190 .8
5 D
900 B
.25. .A
480. .8
400 C
. 30 . 8
110. C
30 . . B
800. D
140. .8
697 .. C
250. C
665. C
1 50 . . B
.349. C
190. A
.50. A
.086 B
400. D
400. A
,542, A
,207. .8
.75. A
958

292. B
250. .C

700. .8
335 .. 8

800
300
- .5
126.

750. .8

. 99 B
100 D
75 . D
117. .A

394 C
45. C
115 8
250.. C
. 75 . . A

765 .. B
285 ,, D

•Does not appear on the map: key shows general location.

Melbourne 50. .C 3

Menio 100.. C 3

Mercer Island 500. .8 4

Mesa* 263. .C 7

Metaline 299. .A 9

Metaline Falls 469. .A 9

Methow 75. A 6

Mica 75. .8 9

Midland* . . .4.000. .8 4
Midland

Acres* 900. D 4

Midway 1,000. .D 3

Milan 70 .8 9

Milwood . . . ,1.776. .D 9

Milton 2.218. D 2

Mineral 400. .C 4

Minnehaha* .2,0OO..D 4
Mirror Lake* .500 . B 4

Moclips 500. . 8 2

Mohler 30. .B 8

Molson 80 .A 7

Monitor 400. . B 6

Monroe 1.901 . B 5

Montesano . .2.486 OC 3
Monte Vista* 1.500 .8 4
Morton . . 1.183 C 4
Moses Lake 11.299. .8 7
Mossyrock . . . .344. .C 4

Mount Hope D 9

Mount

Vernon . . .7.921 .OA 4
Mountain View 25. .C 9
Mountlake

Terrace . .9. 122 B 4
Moxee City ...499. C 6
Mukilteo* ...1.128 B 4

Naches 680 C 6

Nahcotta* 250 C 2

Napavine 314. .C 4

Naselle 350.. C 3

National 60.. C 4

Navy Yard

City* 3,341 .84

Neah Bay . . 900 A 2

Nespelem 358 A 8

Newhalem . . . 400. .A 5
Newport . .1.513 OA 9
Nighthawk ... 15. A 7
Nine Mile Falls 80. D 8
Nisoually* . .. 300. B 4

Nooksack 318. A 4

Nordland 100. A 4

Normandy

Park* 3.224. .8 4

North Bend .. .945 .8 5
North

Bonneville . .494. .D 5
North City* .2.000.8 4
North

Puyallup* . 650. .8 4

Northport 482. A 9

Oak Harbor .3.942. A 4
Oakesdale . . . .474. . 8 9

Oakville 377. C 3

Ocean Park . . .750. .C 2

Ocosta C 2

Odessa 1.231. 8 8

Okanogan ...2. 001. "A 7

Olalla 125. D 2

Olds B 6

Olympia .. .18.273. "8 4

Omak 4. 068. A 7

Onalaska 250. .C 4

Opportunity 12.465. B 9

Orcas* 250 .A 4

Orchard

Avenue* . .5.000. .8 9

Orchards 250 . D 4

Orient 150. A 8

Orillia 75. D 3

Oroville 1.437. A 7

Orting 1.520. .8 4

Othello 2.669. C 7

Otis Orchards .750 D 9

Outlook 325. C 6

Pacific 1.577. D 3

Pacific Beach 820. B 2
Packwood . . .350. .C 5

Palisades 15. .8 7

Palmer 25. .D 3

Palouse 926. C 9

Parker 300. C 6

Parkland .. 15.000. D 2
Pasadena

Park* 2.000 B 9

Pasco 14.522 oc 7

Pateros 673. A 7

Paterson 45. .0 7

Pe Ell 593. C 3

Penawawa 30. C 9

Peone D 9

Peshastin 600. .8 6

Pine City 50. .8 9

Pinecroft D 9

Pinehurst . . .3.000. B 4
Pleasant

Beach (part

of Port

Blakcly) D 2

Pleasant

Prairie D 8

Pleasant View C 8

Pomeroy ... 1.677.0C 9
Port

Angeles . l2.653.OA 3

oCounty Seat.
Source; Latest census figures.

Port Angeles

East" 1.283 A 3

Port Blakciv 400 D 2
Port Discovery . A 4

Port Gamlile .400 B 4
Port Ludlow 300 B 4
Port Orchard 2.778, "B 4
Port

Townsend .5.074.OA 4

Porter 200 .C 3

Poulsbo 1.505 B 4

Prescott 269 . C 8

Preston 250 D 3

Prosser .. ,2.763-OC 7

Providence C 8

Puoet Island C 3

Pullman .12.957 -C 9
Puyallup . .12.063 B 4

Pysht 50 A 2

Quilcene 600 . B 4

Ouinault 300 B 3

Quincy 3.269 B 7

Rainier 245. .C 4

Randle 100 C 5

Ravensdale . .250 D 3
Raymond . . .3.301 C 3

Reardan 474 B 9

Redmond .1.426 D 3
Redondo . . .600 D 2
Ronton .. 18.453 B 4
Republic . .. .1.064 "A 8

Rctsil D 2

Ricllland 23,548 C 7

Richmond

Beach 2.000 B 4

Richmond

Highlands 6.000 B 4
Ridgecrest* .3.000. ,B 4
Ridgefield , . .823 D 4

Riffe 250. C 4

Ritzville ... 2.173 °B 8

Riverside 201, A 7

RIverton

Heights- 19.000 B 4

Riverview

(Pasco

West)* .2.894..C 7

Roche Harhor 20 .A 3

Rochester .350 ,C 3

Rock Island 260 B 6

Rocklord 369 B 9

Rockoort , 185, A 5

Rocky Point' 1.000 8 4

Rollingbay 600 D 2

Ronald 250 ,B 5

Roosevelt 60, , D 6

Rosalia 585 B 9

Rosburg 50 C 3

Rosedale , . , , 30, ,D 2

Roslyn 1.283, B 6

Roy 264 B 4

Ruston 694 B 4

Ryderwood .380. C 3

St. John 545, ,B 9

St. Martins

College' 700. B 4

Salkuni 200, C 4

Salmon Creek 175, D 4

Sappho 100 A 2

Satsop 150 B 3

Seabcck 400 D 2

Seahurst 2 500 D 2

Seattle ., . 557.087. »B 4
Seattle

Heights" , .300 B 4

Seaview 600 C 2

Sedro

Woolley .-3.705, A 4

Sekiu 150, A 2

Selah 2.824. C 6

Selleck 100 B 5

Sequim 1.164 A 3

Sharon D 8

Shelton 5.651 °B 3

Sheridan

Beach* . . .1.500, B 4

Silverdalc . , ,950. .B 4

Silverlakc .300,,C 4

25.

, . .325,
. . .200-
. , , 366 ,
,3.894.
.1.216

,800,
1.591
.1.671

Silverton

Skamania

Skamokawa

Skykomish

Snohomish

Snoqualmie

Falls . .
Soap Lake
South Bend
South

Broadway* 3.661
South Cheney ....
South Cle

Elum ...-383
South Colby ..350
South Prairie .214
South

Wenatchee ....
Spanaway . . .2,500

Spangle 208

Spokane .181.608

Sprague 597

Springdale . . ,254
Stanwood ...1.123
Starbuck . ,161

Startup 250

Stehekin 45

Stcilacoom ..1,569

Steptoe 100

Stevenson 927,

Sultan 821

Sumach* .... 1.345

Somas 629

Sumner 3. 156

Sunnyside 6 208
Suquamish , 950
Tacoma ...147.979,

Taholah 400

Tahuya 150

Teanaway

Tekoa 911

Tenino 836

Thomas 300,

A 5

D 4

C 3

B 5

B 4

B 5

,B 5

B 7

°C 3

C 6
D 8

B 6
D 2
B 4

Thornton ....

Thorp

Tieton

Tiger

Tillicum .... I
Tokeland , ,

Toledo

Tonasket ....

Tono

Toppcnish ..5

Touchet

Tracyton . , , ,
Trentwood* .1
Trout Lake
Tukwila - I
Tumtum
Tumwater . , ,3

Turner

Twisp

Tyler

l;nderwood , ,

Union

Union Gap . ,2
Uniontown

Usk

Vader

Valley

Valleyiord ,
Vancouver 32,

Vantage

Vashon

Heights* . .. .

Vaughn

Veradale ... .2.
Waitsburg .1.
Walla

Walla .24.
Walla Walla

East- ., .1.
Walla Walla

West

(Garrett)* I.
Wallula

WASHINGTON

220. B 9 Wapato 3.137, ,0 6

430. .8 r> Warden 949.. 7

479, C 6 Warm Beach .300. A 4

10, -A 9 Washougal , 2.672. .D 4

.500 B 4 Washtucna , ,331. ,C 8

150. C 3 Waterville , ,1.013.08 6

499, C 4 Wauconda 15 ..A 7

958. A 7 Waukon 25. D 8

C 4 Wauna 130. .D 2

.667 ,C 6 Wellpinit .. .100. ,B 9

250 C 8 Wenatchee . 16.726. "B 6

300 D 2 West

,387 8 9 Clarkston* 2.851.. C 9

450 D 5 West

804 D 2 Richland* I.347..C 7

25, ,8 9 West We.

885 B 4 natchcc* ..2.5I8.,B 6

C 9 Westlake" ,,..298..B 7

750. A 6 Westport 976. C 2

30, D 8 White

350, D 5 Salmon . , .1.590. .D 5

500 B 3 White Swan .300..C 6

100. C 6 Whites 55, .B 3

242, C 9 Wilbur 1.138. .8 8

300, A 9 Wilkeson 412. B 4

380. C 4 Willapa , ,300, ,C 3

250 A 9 Wilson Creek ,252. 8 7

100 B 9 Winlock 808. C 4

464 OD 4 Winona 100. .C 9

225 ,C 7 Winslow 919, .D 2

850, 8 4 Winthrop 359, A 6

Wishram 750 ,D 6

350 8 4 Withrow , , 25. 8 7

300. D 2 Woodinville ,, 650..B 4

000, 8 9 Woodland .1.336, D 4

010 C 8 Woodway* 713. .B 4

Yacolt 375. .D 4

536. OC 8 Yakima 43,284. "C 6

Yardley 300. D 8

557, C 8 Yarrow Point* 766. D 3

Yelm 479.. C 4

Yoman D 2

641. C 8 Zenith 600. .D 2

150. C 8 Zillah 1.059. .0 6

"Does not appear on the map; key shows general location.

•County Seat.
Source: Latest census figures.

Tacoma^ a busy seaport and industrial center, spreads along
Commencement Bay on the eastern shore of Puget Sound, Mount

Rainier, one of the highest peaks in the United States, rises in the
background. Its slopes attract many skiers and mountain climbers.

H,ny Alkoson

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WASHINGTON

PeopU

The 1960 United States census reported that Wash-
ington had 2,853,214 persons. The population had in-
creased 20 per cent over the 1 950 figure, 2,378,963. The
U.S. Bureau of the Census estimated that by 1965 the
state's population had reached about 3,105,000.

About three-fifths of the people of Washington live in
the metropolitan areas of .Seattle-Everett and Tacoma,
in western Washington, and Spokane, in eastern Wash-
ington. These three areas are Standard Metropolitan
Stadstical Areas as defined by the U.S. Bureau of the
Budget (see Metropolitan Area). For their popula-
tions, see the Index to the political map of Washington.

Most of the larger Washington cities are in the
western part of the state along Puget Sound. Seattle,
the state's largest city, is in this region. It serves as an
important shipping and manufacturing center. Tacoma,
an industrial and port city, is about 28 miles south of
Seatde. Both these cities began chiefly as ports for
shipping lumber. Later, they became important ship-
ping centers for trade with Alaska and Asia.

Most of the cities in eastern Washington developed as
centers for farm trade, lumbering, or mining. Spokane,
the largest eastern city, is an important railroad, manu-
facturing, grain, and financial center. The "Tri-Cities"
of Richland, Pasco, and Kennewick in south-central
Washington grew in size and importance after World
War II. At that time, the Hanford Works, an atomic
energy center, was established nearby. See the separate
articles on the cities of Washington listed in the Related
Articles at the end of this article.

About 90 of every 100 Washingtonians, including
many of Oriental ancestry, were born in the United
States. Canadians and .Scandinavians are the largest
foreign-born groups. Washington has over 2 1 ,000 In-
dians. About half of them live on the state's 21 reserva-
tions and 3 other areas granted by the U.S. government.

The Roman Catholic Church has the largest religious
membership in Washington. Methodists and Lutherans
are the largest Protestant groups. Other major religious
groups in the state include the Baptists, Disciples of
Christ, Episcopalians, Mormons, and Presbyterians.

hall Lockman, Black .Star

PERSONS PER
SQUARE MILE

2SIOI00
10 to 25

1 to 10

POPULATION

This map shows the population density of
Washington, and how it varies in different
parts of the state. Population density means
the averoge number of persons who live on
each square mile.

50 100 Miles

■' I ' I '

50 100 150 K.tomelers

WORLD BOOK map

W .i-hiiiLTiun State DL'parlnuTit of Commerce News Bureau

A Thirsty Young Brave at the Ellensburg Rodeo reflects Wash-
ington's heritage as a center of Indian life. About half the state's
large Indian population lives on 21 reservations.

Crowds Waiting for a Monorail Train in Seattle symbolize
the busy city life of Washington today. Over half the people of the
state live in metropolitan Seattle-Everett, Tacoma, and Spokane.

\\ hitman Collfge News Service

Lyman Hall at Whitman College in Walla Walla stands at

the east end of the 40-acre campus. The college has the first

charter granted to an institution by the territorial legislature.

Pacific Science Center, in Seattle, includes exhibits of modern
science. The center's five buildings, constructed for the 1 962
World's Fair, make up part of Seottle's Civic Center.

Marshall I.oekman, Black Star

Schools. The first school in Washington opened at
Old Fort \"ancouver in 1832. It was established for the
children of employees of the Hudson's Bay Company, a
British trading firm. In the 1830's, missionaries began
teaching Indians in eastern \Vashington near present-
da\- Spokane and Walla Walla. These early teachers
included Marcus Whitman and his wife Nai'cissa, and
Gushing Eells, Henrv- Spalding, and Elkanah Walker.
In 1859, Whitman College, Washington's first institu-
tion of higher learning, was foimded at Walla Walla.
A state-wide system of public schools began in 1895. A
law passed that year provided state financial support lor
schools.

An elected state superintendent of public instruction
and a state board of education supei-vise Washington's
public-school system. Children between the ages of 8
and 15 must attend school. A child between 15 and 16
must attend school unless he has a regular job. For the
number of students and teachers in Washington, see
Education (table).

Libraries. Washington's first library, the State Li-
brary in Olympia, began in 1853 as the Territorial
Libraiy. Today, Washington has about a hundred pub-
lic libraries. About '20 counties have rural bookmobile
library service. The state supreme court maintains a law
library at Olympia. The Henry Suzzallo Memorial Li-
brary' at the University of Washington has several fa-
mous coUecUons, including historical material on the
Pacific Northwest, oceanography, and the fisheries in-
dustry,'. The Seatde Public Library has more than a mil-
lion books, including collecdons on the Pacific North-
west and on aeronautics.

Museums. The Thomas Burke Memorial-Washing-
ton State Museum on the campus of the L'niversity of
Washington owns important anthropological collec-
tions. These sho%v the life of the Pacific Northwest Indians

and people of the Far East. Musetmis \\ith relics of
Washington histoiy include the Cheney Cowles Memo-
rial and Grace Campbell Memorial museums in Spo-
kane, the Washington State Historical Society in
Tacoma, the Museum of Histor\- and Industry- in
Seatde, and the Whitman College Museum of North-
west Histor>' in Walla Walla. The Seattle Art Museum
has fine collections of Oriental art and works by artists
of the Pacific Northwest. The Charies and Emma Frye
Art Museum features paintings by European and
American artists. The Pacific Science Center in Seattle
has exhibits of modern science.

UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

Washington has 1 6 regionally accredited universities and
colleges. For enrollments and further information, see UNI-
VERSITIES AtvID COtLEGES (table).

Name Locotion

Centrol Washington State

College
Eastern Washington State

College
Fort Wright College

of the Holy Names
Gonzaga University
Pacific Lutheran University
Pugel Sound, University of
Saint Martin's College
Seattle Pacific College
Seattle University
Sulpician Seminary of the

Northv/est
Walla Walla College
Washington, University of
Washington Stale University
Western Washington State

College
Whitman College
Whitworth College

Ellensburg

Cheney

Spokane

Tacoma

Olympia

Seattle

Kenmore
College Place
Seattle
Pullman

Bellinghom
Walla Walla
Spokane

Founded

1890

1907
1887
1894
1888
1895
1891
1891

1931
1892
1861
1890

1893
1859
1890

Bob and Ira Spring

Space Needle and Monorail in Seattle

WASHINGTON/^ y.^.^^^,^ ^^.^^

Ray Atkeson, Publlx

Olympic National Park on the Olympic Peninsula

Washington is a paradise for persons who enjoy the
outdoors. For the sportsman, it offers some of the best
hunting and fishing in the United States. Deer and
game birds are plentiful, and the state restocks fresh-
water lakes and streams with ti'out each year.

Every winter, skiers flock to the slopes of Mount

Rainier, Mount Baker, Snoqualmie Pass, Stevens Pass,
and Mount Spokane. The main skiing season begins in
December and lasts until late spring. But some ski areas
have snow all year. In summer, Washington's rugged
mountains and wilderness areas attract hardy hikers and
mountain climbers.

PLACES TO VISIT

Following are brief descriptions of some of Washing-
ton's many interesting places to visit.

Grand Coulee Dam, 92 miles northwest of Spokane,
is the largest concrete dam in the United States (see
Grand Coulee Dam).

Lev/is and Clark Monument, in Long Beach, marks
the end of the explorations of the Lewis and Clark expe-
dition to the Pacific Coast. See Lewis and Clark
Expedition (map).

Maryhlll Castle, at Maryhill, is an art museum in an
elaborate mansion built in 1926 by multimillionaire
Samuel Hill. The gray stone structure stands on a high
bluff overlooking the scenic Columbia River Gorge.

Rocky Reach Dam, near Wenatchee, has a museum
and an underground room where visitors can watch
salmon swim upstream to lay their eggs.

San Juan Islands, near Canada's Vancouver Island,
are vacation resorts noted for their scenic beauty (see
San Juan Islands).

Seattle Center, made up of buildings from the 1962
World's Fair, inckides a 600-foot tower called the Space
Needle. The tower has a revolving restaurant and an
observation platform near the top. A monorail connects
the center with downtown Seattle.

National Parks and Forests. Washington has two na-
tional parks — Mount Rainier and Olympic. These

The San Juan Islands near Bellingham
Racing Event During the Seafair in Seattle

Bob and Ira Spring

*v---

=^.«- ^i^

Ray AtkeaoD

Skiing in the Northern Cascade Mountains

Bob and Irm Spnog, Poblbc

WASHINGTON

parks include some of the country's most scenic areas.
NVashin^ton has nine national forests. Seven of them He
entirely within the state. They are Okanogan, Gifford
Pinchot. Mount Baker, Snoqualmie, Wenatchee. Olym-
pic, and Colville. Kaniksu National Forest is shared by
\Vashington, Idaho, and Montana. Umatilla National
Forest, in the Blue Mountains, lies in both Washington
and Oregon. In 1964, Congress set aside three areas
within these forests as national wilderness areas, to be
preseived in their natural condition. For the area and
chief features of each national park and forest, see Na-
tional Park (table) and National Forest (table). .See
also the separate articles on the national parks.

National Historic Sites. Whitman Mission NaUonal
Historic Site marks the spot of the Indian mission
founded bv Marcus Whitman and his wife in 1836. It
was also the scene of the Indian massacre of 1847 in
which the Whitmans and others lost their lives. The
place was declared a national monument in 1940.
and became a historic site in 1963. Fort Vancouver
National Historic Site was the western headquarters of
the Hudson's Bay Company from 1825 to 1846. It was
a U.S. militan,' resei-valion for about a hundred years
after that. Established in 1954 as a national monument,
it became a national historic site in 1961 . Each historic
site has a separate article in World Book.

State Parks. Washington has over a hundred de-
veloped parks and historic and geologic sites under the
administration of the state parks and recreation com-
mission. The state park system also includes several un-
developed tracts. I'or information on the state parks of
Washington, write to Director, Washington State Park
and Recreation Commission, 522 S. Franklin St., OUtti-
pia. Washington 98502.

ANNUAL EVENTS

Washington's many annual events include Indian
festivals, flower exhibitions, sports competitions, and
regional fairs. Perhaps the outstanding annual event is
the Seafair, held in Seattle during the first two weeks of
August. This show features parades, water carnivals,
and boat races on Lake Washington. Other annual
events in Washington include the following.

January-May: Ski-jumping Tournament in Leaven-
worth (Januar%'); Trade Fair in Seattle (early in April);
Daffodil F'estival in Puyallup (.April); Apple Blossom
Festival in Wenatchee (first week in May) : Rhododen-
dron Festival in Port Townsend (third Saturday in
May); Lilac Festival in Spokane (May); Blossom Time
Festival in Bellinghain (May).

June-August: Lummi Stommish Water Carnival near
Bellingham (J ime); Timber Bowl Celebration in Dar-
rington (June); Pacific International Yachting Associa-
tion Regatta at Seattle (July 1-6); Toppenish Indian
Pow WowinToppenish(July 3-4); International Cruiser
Race from Puget Soimd to Nanaimo, B.C. (July); Pa-
cific Northwest Arts and Crafts Fair in Bellevue(July);
Stockadcr Days in X'ancouver (.\iigust).

September-December: EUensburg Rodeo in Ellens-
burg (.September 1-3); Western Washington State Fair
in Puyallup (.September); Exhibition of Northwest Art
in Seatde (November); Seattle Boat Show (November).

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58c

WASHINGTON/c,;^^^^

Western Washington has a milder climate than any
other region in the United States that is as far north.
Westerly winds from the Pacific Ocean help keep the
summers pleasantly cool and the winters relatively
warm. Seattle has an average July temperature of about
66° F., and an average January temperature of 41° F.

Eastern Washington has warmer summers and colder
winters than western Washington. Spokane, near the
Idaho border, has an average July temperature of
72° F., and an average January temperature of 25° F.

The state's highest temperature, 118°F., occurred
near Wahluke on July 24, 1 928, and at Ice Harbor Dam
in southeastern Washington on Aug. 5, 1961. Deer
Park, in eastern Washington, recorded the state's low-
est temperature, —42° F., on Jan. 20, 1937.

Moist winds from the Pacific Ocean bring much rain
to western Washington. By the time the winds reach
eastern Washington, they have lost much of their mois-
ture. For this reason, eastern Washington has a much
drier climate than the western part of the state. Precip-
itation (rain, melted snow, and other forms of moisture)
averages more than 135 inches a year in parts of the
Olympic Peninsula. But Washington's central plateau
receives only 6 inches. Much of this area is semidesert.

Snowfall in Washington averages about 5 inches a
year along the coast. The lower slopes of Mount Rai-
nier receive from 50 to 75 inches, and the higher slopes
get more than 500 inches. In 1955-1956, Paradise
Ranger Station on Mount Rainier recorded the heaviest
snowfall for one winter in the U.S. — over 1,000 inches.

SEASONAL TEMPERATURES

AVERAGE OF DAILY
LOW TEMPERATURES

Degrees
Centigrade

Oto 2

•4 lo

-9 to -4

■13 to -9

■18 to -13

grees
Fotirenheit

32 to 36

24 lo 32

16 to 24

8 to 16

Oto 8

AVERAGE OF DAILY
LOV( TEMPERATURES

Degrees
Centigrade

1310 18

9 to 13

4 to 9

grees
Fohrenheit

56 to 64

48 to 56

40 to 48

JANUARY

Spokor

AVERAGE OF DAILY
NIGH TEMPERATURES

JULY

AVERAGE OF DAILY
HIGH TEMPERATURES

Degrees
Fotirentieit

88 to 96

80 lo 88

n to 80

64 lo 72

Degrees
Centigrode

31 lo 36

27 to 31

22 lo 27

18 to 22

AVERAGE YEARLY RAINFALL

(INCLUDES MELTED SNOW)

300 Kilometers

WORLD BOOK maps

SEATTLE
SPOKANE

MONTHLY

JAN FEB
43 48
31 34

WEATHER IN

MAR APR MAY
52 58 65
37 40 45

SEATTLE AND SPOKANE

JUNE JULY AUG SEP! UL 1 ,';0V
70 75 74 68 59 50
50 53 53 49 44 38

DEC
45

Average of;

High femperotures

Low Ttmptraturas

19 16

17 13

6 8 16 IB

Doys of Roin or Snow

17 12

13 7

4 5 10 12

Doys of Roin or Snow

30 36
20 23

46 56
30 37

Temperaturea

66 72 82
44 51 57

are given in degrees

81 71 58 42
55 48 39 30

Fahrenheit.

J4
24

High Temperotures
Low Timperatures

Source: U.S. Weather Bureau

58d

WASHINGTON

Economy

The Cascade Mountains divide \Vashington into f\vo
major economic regions. The region east of the Cas-
cades is important for agriculture. Farmers in eastern
Washington raise large wheat and fruit crops, beef cat-
tle, and many vegetables. .Spokane is eastern Washing-
ton's chief financial and marketing center.

Most of Washington's industrial centers are in the
western lowlands. Seattle, Tacoma, and other port
cities are centers for trade, fishing, and shipbuilding.
W'estern Washington is also a dairy farming and bulb-
producing region. Lumbering and the processing of
^^•ood products are important in many parts of the state.

About 7,000,000 tourists a year visit the state. They
spend about S268.000.000 a year there.

Natural Resources. Washington's many natural re-
sources include a plentiful water supply, large timber re-
serves, and fertile soils.

h'ater is one of the state's most important resources.
Melted snow from the mountains feeds the rivers of
western \Vashington and provides water for industry,
electric power, irrigation, and home use. The Columbia
River and its tributaries are valuable sources of water
for in-igation and power in central and eastern Wash-
ington. Inlets and bays in the Puget Sound region and
along the coast encourage shipping, commercial fishing,
and pleasure boating.

Forests cover nearly 24,000,000 acres in Washington.
About 1 9,500,000 acres are of commercial value, with

PRODUCTION IN WASHINGTON

Total yearly value of goods produced — $3,561,326,000

MANUFACTURED-
PRODUCTS 79%

AGRICULTURAt
"products 18%

>.-

MINERAL
PRODUCTS 2%

FISH PRODUCTS 1%

N'ote: Manufacturing percentage based on value added by manufacture.
Other percentages based on value of production.

Source: Latest available U.S. Government statistics

EMPLOYMENT IN WASHINGTON

Average yeorly number of persons employed — 991,607

Number of
Employees

Manufacturing

*******

219,000

Wholesale & Retail Trade

******

188,600

Government

*****<

171,400

Services

* ** *

115,500

Agriculture

* * * J

111,000

Transportation & Public Utilities

* *

61,900

Construction

* i

47,400

Finance, Insurance & Real Estate

* i

43,200

Forestry

22,400

Fishing & Mining

11,207

Source: Employment statistics supplied by employers to government
agencies

reserves of standing timber estimated at 3 1 5,067,000,000
board feet. In the western part of the state, where the
rainfall is heaviest, the Douglas fir is the leading timber
tree. Hemlock, Sitka spruce, and western red cedar are
also common. The ponderosa (western yellow) pine is
the chief timber tree in the drier eastern section. Doug-
las fir, western lai'ch, and lodgepole pine also grow
there. The eastern forests lie chiefly along the slopes of
the Cascades, in the northeastern highlands, and in the
Blue Mountains. The most common Washington hard-
woods include alder, aspen, birch, and maple.

The state government, the U.S. government, and
many private companies work to conserve Washington's
valuable timber resoiures. They use hai-vesting methods
that leave enough trees for natural reseeding. They also
grow seedlings in tree niuseries for use in reforestation
projects. Tree seeds are scattered from helicopters in
areas that are difficult to reach by land. Helicopters and
small airplanes are also used to spray insect poisons on
forests that are being desuoyed by harmful bugs. Two
forest-conservation groups originated in \\'ashington.
They are the American Tree Farm System and the
Keep America Green movement.

Soils. Washington's best soils for agriculture are the
silts and sands of the river valleys and of the irrigated
dry lands east of the Cascades. The soils of the Palouse
region in southeastern Washington, especially in Whit-
man County, were built up from fine materials carried
by winds from the west. These fertUe soils produce
large crops of wheat and peas. Most of the high moun-
tain areas have rocky soils.

Minerals. Washington has the only large coal de-
posits on the Pacific Coast. The state's coal reserves are
estimated at 63,580.000.000 tons. The largest coal fields
lie in Kittitas and King counties. Magnesite deposits
occur near Chcwelah. Gold and zinc deposits are found
on the eastern slopes of the Cascades and in the Oka-
nogan Mountains. The Okanogans also have lead de-
posits. Clay, limestone, and sand and gravel occur in
many parts of the state. Washington also has deposits
of barite, copper, diatomite, dolomite, iron ore, peat,
pumice, silver, soapstone, and talc.

Plants and Animals. Many kinds of plants grow in
Washington because of the great variety of climates and
elevations. Rare wild flowers bloom in mountain mead-
ows. Colorful lupine, brown-eyed Susan, and goldenrod
grow in fields and along roadways. Flowering plants
such as the western rhododendron and the western dog-
wood brighten the forests and hillsides.

Game animals found in Washington include bears,
elk, and three kinds of deer. These are the Columbian
black-tailed deer, the mule deer, and the western white-
tailed deer. \\'ashington also has many small fur-bearing
animals such as beavers, martens, minks, muskrats, and
western bobcats. Game birds of the state include pheas-
ants, ruffed grouse, sage grouse, wild ducks, wild geese,
and several kinds of quaU.

Fishes in the many fresh-\vater rivers and lakes include
grayling, cutthroat trout, rainbow trout, steelhead trout,
and whitefish. Enormous sturgeon weighing several
hundred pounds have been caught in the Columbia
and Snake rivers. Salt-water fishes include cod, floun-

58e

WASHINGTON

Poultry

Foreit Products

Forest
Prodoctj

Silver rt
Gold

FARM, MINERAL,
AND FOREST
PRODUCTS

This map shows where the state's
leading form, mineral, and for-
est products are produced. The
major urban areas (shown on
the map in red) are the state's
important manufacturing centers.

Foreit Products

Dairy Product!

^ h. n

. Berries •P* ^ >^

>^ 'Vegelobles Copper

▼ Foceil fj

Poultry Products r^lA

Forest Product! « c „i

Seattle ^

Forest Products M ,

■^>

Forest
Products

Forest ^^
Products Q

Doiry ^ 'Vegetobles ^°°'

Products ^ JiTacoma

Oyjters ^, "^
Nursery ]
Products
^ Berries

Coal

Nursery ^/^

Forest Products

Doiry ■^

Producti ▼

Poultry

I ' I I ' 1 I I

25 50 75 100 125 150 Kilometers

Forest
Products

iPi*"

Dairy Produett

Gold

Sheep

Sugary Fruity
Beets ^ J

Hoy
Vegetables

Poultry

O
Potatoes

'V<"t

Hopi

Forojt Products

Leod

Zinc

Forest
Products

Fruit

Spokane

Barley

Beef Cottle

* Potatoes

Rye II

O Wheat
Potatoes

f7 ^

Sheep Vegetable!

I ff

I Wlieot i„i Cottle

WORLD BOOK map

dcr, halibut, and salmon. Crabs, oysters, and several
kinds of clams live in the shallow coastal waters.

Washington salmon have an interesting life story.
These fish spend most of their lives in the ocean. But
when they are old enough to lay eggs, they leave the
ocean and swim up rivers. Sometimes they travel for
hundreds of miles, leaping up rapids and waterfalls.
When they reach quiet waters far upstream, they lay
their eggs and then die. After the young fish hatch, they
swim back down the rivers to the ocean. Such salmon
"runs" used to take place in many of Washington's
rivers and streams. Many of the runs were destroyed
because hydroelectric projects dammed the rivers and
industries polluted the water. Also, fishermen caught too
many of the fish. The state is trying to restore its
salmon runs by "planting" rivers with salmon eggs. In
addition, "fish ladders" are being built so the fish can
swim around dams.

Manufacturing accounts for about 79 per cent of
the total value of all goods produced in Washington.
Products manufactured in the state have a value added
by manufacture of about 12,823,000,000 a year. This
figure represents the value added to products by Wash-
ington's industries, not counting such costs as materials,
supplies, and fuels. Washington's chief manufactured
products, in order of importance, are (1) transportation
equipment, (2) lumber and wood products, including
paper, and (3) processed foods.

Transportation Equipment made in Washington has a
value added of about $ 1 ,023,000,000 a year. Washington
is a leading center of the aircraft and space indus-
try. The Boeing Company, with headquarters in Seat-
tle and plants in Renton, leads the nation in the produc-
tion of multiengine jet planes. It employs about 50,000
Washingtonians— more than any other manufacturing
firm in the state.

Washington is also a leading shipbuilding center. It
has major shipyards at Bellingham, Bremerton, Seattle,
Tacoma, and Vancouver. The Puget Sound Naval Ship-
yard at Bremerton is the largest on the Pacific Coast.

Forest Products produced in Washington have a value
added of about $622,914,000 a year. Wood pulp and

58f

Sawmills with log-filled ponds, such as this one near Enumclaw,
are common in Washington, a leading lumber state.

paper account for nearly half this figure. Sawmills and
factories in many parts of the state produce lumber, ply-
wood, shingles, and veneer strips.

Food Processing activities include milling flour; pack-
ing fish and meats; canning, freezing, and presei-ving
fruits, vegetables, and berries; and producing butter,
cheese, milk, breakfast foods, and bakery goods. The
state also refines much beet sugar.

Other Industries. Oil refineries operate at Anacortes,
Edmonds, Ferndale, Richmond Beach, and Tacoma.
Steel is made from imported ores in Seattle. Longview,
Spokane, Vancouver, and Wenatchee have either alu-
minum-reduction plants or aluminum-rolling mills.
Magnesium is obtained from magnesite at Spokane.

Agriculture accounts for about 1651,100,000 yearly,
or about 18 per cent of the value of goods produced in
Washington. Washington has over 5 1 ,500 farms. They
average more than 360 acres in size.

Farmers produce good crops both by dry farming
methods and by irrigation. The chief irrigated regions

are in the Columbia Basin and in the valleys of the
Okanogan, Snake, Spokane, Walla Walla, Wen-
atchee, and Yakima rivers. Most farms in the irrigated
areas are between 40 and 100 acres in size. Most nn-
irrigated wheat and livestock farms are large, and many
of them cover several thousand acres. The western
lowlands have rich soil and a plentiful water supply.
Most of the farms in this area cover from 40 to 60 acres.

Wheat is Washington's most valuable crop. Farmers
in eastern Washington raise large crops of spring and
winter wheat. The state ranks high in the production of
potatoes and sugar beets, grown mainly in Grant,
Yakima, and other counties of south-central Washing-
ton. This region also produces hops, used in making
beer. Washington is a leading producer of asparagus,
dry beans, and green peas, and of barley, rye, and other
grains. It also produces a hay crop.

Washington grows more apples than any other state.
People throughout the country enjoy such famous kinds
of \Vashington apples as the Delicious and the Golden
Delicious. The state also ranks high in the production
of apricots, cherries, pears, and prunes. Most of the
apples and other orchard fruits are grown in the irrigated
valleys of central and eastern Washington. The \'an-
couver region specializes in cherries. Cooperatives such
as the Yakima Fruit Growers Association market the
products of most Washington fruit growers. Washington
produces important berry crops, especially cranberries
and strawberries and ranks high in grape production.

Flower bulbs are also an important Washington crop.
The main kinds are iris, narcissus, and tulip. Crocus,
gladiolus, and lily bulbs are also grown in the state. The
Puyallup Valley is a world-famous source of bulbs.

Livestock and livestock products account for about
a third of the value of Washington farm products. .Stock-
men raise beef cattle, horses, and sheep on large ranches
in the dry regions. Most of the state's dairy farms are in
the Puget Sound Lowland. Washington farms also pro-
duce many chickens and eggs.

Mining. Washington produces about $68,474,000
worth of minerals a year. Sand, gravel, and stone
quarries accoimt for about half this total. Types of stone
mined in the state include basalt, granite, limestone,
and sandstone. Lead and zinc account for over 10 per
cent of the total value of minerals that come from Wash-
ington. Most lead and zinc ore is mined in Pend
Oreille County. One of the largest deposits of magnesite
in the United States is near Chewelah.

Fishing Industry. The state has won fame for its
seafoods, especially Chinook and sockeye salmon.
Washington fishermen also catch clams, cod, crabs,
floimder, halibut, herring, ocean perch, oysters, rockfish,
sablefish, shrimp, smelt, and sole. Seattle ranks as
the greatest halibut port in the United States, and as
one of the largest salmon markets.

Electric Power. Washington has more potential wa-
ter power than any other state. It has developed only
about three-tenths of its potential water power. But it
leads the states in hydroelectric generating capacity
and in yearly hydroelectric power production.

Grand Coulee Dam, the largest concrete dam in the
L'nited States, is one of the greatest sources of water
power in the world. Other large dams on the Columbia
River include Bonneville, Chief Joseph, John Day,
McNary, Priest Rapids, Rock Island, Rocky Reach,

WASHINGTON

The Dalles, and Wanapum. There are also many dams
on the .Snake River. Major power-producing dams on
smaller rivers include Diablo and Ross, on the LIpper
Skagit; Alder, on the Nisqually; and Mossyrock, on the
Cowlitz. For the state's kilowatt-hour production, see
Electric Power (table).

Transportation facilities in Washington help link
the LJnited States with Canada, the Orient, and the
South Pacific.

Aviation. Washington has about 200 airports and air-
fields. Five major airlines serve the state. Seattle-Ta-
coma International Airport is an important port for
passenger and freight service to and from Canada,
Alaska, Hawaii, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia.
Other leading airports are at Spokane, Walla Walla,
Wenatchee, and Yakima.

Railroads. Washington has about 5,000 miles of rail-
road track. Four transcontinental railroad lines serve
the state. Several small lines carry only lumber. In 1883,
the Northern Pacific line reached Washington, and in
1 887 it was extended across the Cascade Mountains to Ta-
coma. The 7.79-mile-long Cascade Tunnel, completed
through the Cascades in 1929, is the longest railroad
tunnel in the Western Hemisphere.

Roads and Highways extend for more than 66,000 miles
throughout Washington. About 54,000 miles are paved.
Two floating concrete pontoon bridges cross Seatde's
Lake Washington. The longest one has a floating por-
tion that is 7,703 feet long. The structure is the longest
concrete pontoon bridge in the United States. Another
long pontoon bridge, the Hood Canal Floating Bridge,
spans the Hood Canal. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge,
one of the world's longest suspension bridges, crosses a
part of Puget Sound.

Shipping and ]\'aterways. Anacortes, Seattle, Tacoma,
and several other Puget .Sound cities are important
seaports. Ocean-going ships enter Puget Sound through
the Strait of Juan de Fuca. They bring products from
Asia, South America, and many other parts of the
world. Many large ships also use such ports as Longview
and Vancouver on the Columbia River and Grays
Harbor on the Pacific Ocean. They carry lumber, fish,
grain, and other Washington products.

A man-made waterway, the Lake Washington Ship
Canal, cuts across the city of Seattle. It connects Lake
Washington and Lake Union with Puget Sound. The
Seattle fishing fleet, many pleasure boats, and some
ocean vessels travel up the canal to landlocked harbors.

Communication. Washington's first newspaper, the
Columbian, began in Olympia in 1852. Today, Wash-
ington has 1 94 newspapers, including 25 dailies. Wash-
ington newspapers with the largest circulations are the
St-attle Post-Intelligencer, the Seattle Times, the Spokane
Daily Chronicle, the Spokane Spokesman-Rei^iew, and the
Tacoma News-Tribune. Washington publishers also issue
about 85 magazines.

Washington's first commercial radio broadcast was
made from Everett in 1920 by station KFBL (now
KRKO). KING-TV, Washington's first television
station, began operating in Seattle in 1948. Today, the
state has 108 commercial radio stations and 13 tele-
vision stations.

58g

WASHINGTON

History

Indian Days. Many Indians lived in the Washington
region before the white men came. Tribes of the Pla-
teau Indian group lived on the plains and in river valleys
east of the Cascades. These included the Cayuse, Col-
ville, Nez Perce, Okanogan. Spokane, and Yakima.
The Coastal Indians lived west of the Cascade Moun-
tains. These tribes included the Chinook, Clallam,
Clatsop, Nisqually, Nooksack, and Puyallup. They
lived mainly on salmon and other fish, and carved
masks and other items from wood.

Discovery and Exploration. The first white men to
see the Pacific Northwest were probably Spanish and
English seamen who sailed northward along the coast
from California during the 1 500's. The Europeans did
not land in what is now Washington until the late
1 700's. After the mid-1 700's, Russian fur traders settled
in what is now Alaska. The Spaniards feared that the
Russians would move to occupy the region farther
south. To prevent this expansion, Spain sent several
expeditions to establish Spanish rights to the area.

In ! 775, Bruno Heceta and Juan Francisco de la
Bodega y Quadra made the first landing on Washington
soil, near present-day Point Grenville. They claimed
the region for Spain.

The English also sent several explorers to the Pacific
Northwest. The first was Captain James Cook, in
1 778. He neither touched the coast nor, because of
stormy weather, saw much of it. Captain George Van-
couver, another English explorer, made a careful survey
of Puget Sound and Georgia Gulf between 1 792 and
1 794. One of his officers, Peter Puget, discovered Puget

IMPORTANT DATES IN WASHINGTON

1775 Bruno Heceta and Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra
of Spain made the first landing on Washington soil.

1792 Robert Gray discovered Grays Harbor and the Columbia
River. George Vancouver surveyed the coast of Wash-
ington and Puget Sound.

1805 Lewis and Clark reached Washington and the Pacific
Ocean.

1810 A British-Canadian fur-trading post was established near
present-day Spokane.

1818 Great Britain and the United States agreed to a ioint oc-
cupation of the Oregon region, including Washington.

1 846 A treaty between the United States and Great Britain es-
tablished Washington's boundary at the 49th parallel.

1853 Congress created the Washington Territory.

1855-1858 Indian wars raged throughout the Washington Ter-
ritory.

1883 The Northern Pacific Railroad linked Washington and the
East.

1889 Washington became the 42nd state on November t 1.

1909 The Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held in Seattle.

1917 The Lake Washington Ship Canal opened.

1928 The Capitol at Olympio was completed.

1941 Grand Coulee Dam was completed.

1954 A $40,000,000 oil refinery opened at Ferndale.

1962 The "Century 21" World's Fair was held at Seattle.

1964 The Columbia River Treat/ of 1961 and related agree-
ments received final approval from the U.S. and Cana-
dian governments.

American Claims in the northwest
were strengthened by Marcus Whitman,
for whom Whitnsan College was named.
He founded a itlission near Fort Wailo
Walla in 1836 and lought Indians.

Mount Rainier, the state's
best-known landmark, was named
by the explorer George Van-
couver. He sighted it on May 8,
1792, and named it for a friend.

Lewis and Clarlc Reached the Pacific in

the autumn of 1 805 after crossing the Rockies ^
and descending the Snake and Columbia rivers, .^^g
President Thomas Jefferson had commissioned -^
them to explore the upper Louisiana Territory.

Sound in 1 792. England based its claim to the region
on the explorations of Cook and Vancouver.

Captain Robert Gray, an American, headed a fur-
trading expedition sent by a Boston company. Gray dis-
covered the harbor that now bears his name. In 1 792,
he discovered the mouth of the Columbia River. Gray's
discovery of the Columbia became a basis for .\merican
claims to the region. In 1805, the explorers Meriwether
Lewis and William Clark crossed the Rocky Moun-
tains. They reached the Columbia River and followed
it to the Pacific Ocean. Their voyage gave the United
States a second claim to the Northwest. Between 1807
and 1811, the British strengthened their claim when
David Thompson, a Canadian explorer and geogra-
pher, traveled down the Columbia to the Pacific.

Settlement. During the early 1800's, British and
American fur traders both operated in the region. In
1810, the Canadian North West Company established
Spokane House near present-day Spokane for the

58h

"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" was fhe

cry during the presidential campaign of
1 844. But the boundary between Wash-
ington and Canadici was fixed at lati-
tude 49° by the 1 846 Treaty of Oregon.

Grand Coulee

Spokane

Leading Lumber State. Washington's first
sawmill, run by water power, was set up in
1826, and the first steam sawmill started
operoting in 1853. The state has been a
leading lumber producer since about 1900.

tv">«'»^,i-ii^-*i:' ■

"Biggest Job on Earth." Grand
Coulee Dam, begun in 1933 and fin-
ished in 1941, ranks as the mightiest
piece of masonry built by man. It is mode
of 1 0,585,000 cubic yards of concrete.

Kanford •

"First Atomic City/' Honford, become the site
of an atomic-energy plant in 1943. Its large nu-
clear reactors changed uranium into plutonium, us-
ing hydroelectric power from the Columbia River.

Wollo Wallo

Fort Okanogan was the first perma-
nent American settlement in the Wash-
ington region. It was founded by John
Jacob Astor's fur company in 1811.

HISTORIC
WASHINGTON

purpose of trading wiih the Indians. In 1811, John
Jacob Astor, an American trader, sent a company to
establish a fur-trading post at Astoria, in present-day
Oregon. Astor's group also founded Fort Okanogan,
the first permanent American settlement on land that
now lies within the state of Washington.

During the War of 1812 between the United States
and Great Britain, Astor's company gave up its trading
posts. After the war, the two countries could not agree
on a boimdary line to separate their territories west of
the Rocky Mountains. They signed a treaty in 1818
permitting citizens of both countries to trade and settle
in the region, which was called the Oregon Country.
John McLoughlin of the Hudson's Bay Company, a
powerful British trading firm, built Fort Vancouver
(now \'ancouver) on the Columbia River in 1825.

During the 1840's, many Americans settled in the
Oregon Country. The boundary disptue between the
United States and Great Britain reached a climax dur-

ing the presidential campaign of 1844. James K. Polk
partially based his campaign on the claim that all the
region south of latitude 54° 40' belonged to the United
States (see Fifty-Four Forty or Fight). In 1846,
President Polk signed a treaty with Great Britain which
set the boundary line at the 49th parallel, Washington's
present northern border. Great Britain kept Vancouver
Island, part of which lies south of the 49th parallel.

Territorial Days. A bill creating the Oregon Terri-
tory, of which Washington was a part, passed Congress
in 1848. General Joseph I^ane was appointed governor.
In 1853, President Millard Fillmore signed a bill creat-
ing the W'ashington I'erritory. This region included the
present state of Washington, northern Idaho, and west-
ern Montana. The capital was established at Olympia.
The President appointed Isaac Ingalls Stevens as the
first governor of the new territory. Stevens sought
treaties with the Indians, in order to pm them on
reservations and free more territory for white .settlers.

WASHINGTON

The Coastal Indians signed the treaties. But Stevens'
efforts in 1855 to sign treaties with the Plateau Indians
led to war. Kamiakin, a Yakima Indian chief, led the
warring tribes. The war ended in 1 858 when the Indians
lost a battle near Four Lakes.

In 1 859, the Washington Territory was expanded to
include the southern paits of what are now Idaho and
Wyoming. Washington received its present boundaries
in 186,3. "when the Idaho Territory was established.

Increasing numbers of settlers streamed into Wash-
ington after 1860, partly because of the discovery of
gold in Idaho, Oregon, and British Columbia. But
there were no major gold strikes in Washington. Many
who had hoped to find gold in Washington stayed to be-
come farmers or loggers.

Statehood. The compleuon of a railroad connection
with the East in 1883 brought further population in-
creases. President Benjamin Harrison proclaimed the
territory as the 4'2nd state on Nov. 11, 1889. Elisha
P. Ferry, former governor of the territory, was elected
Washington's first state governor. Olympia remained

the capital.

Between ! 890 and 1 900, parts of the desertlike lands
of eastern Washington were reclaimed by irrigation.
Large numbers of wheat ranchers and fruit growers
came to the state. By 1900, much of the open cattle
range had been replaced by wheat fields and fruit
orchards. Lumbering, fishing, and mining also increased
rapidly, and shipping to the Far East and Alaska be-
came a Jeading activity. The shipping industry added
to the wealth of the ports and railway centers. The state
also profited greatly by the Klondike and Alaska gold
rush of 1897-1898 (see Alaska [The Gold Rush]).
Seattle served as the chief outfitung center for the
prospectors. Washingtonians also made money by
handling fish and other Alaskan products.

The Early 1900's. In 1909, the Alaska-Yukon- Pacific
Exposition was held in Seattle to celebrate the Alaska
gold rush and the growth of the port of Seattle. After
the United States entered World War I in 1917, the
shipyards of Puget Sound expanded. The lumber in-
dustry grew, and wheat from the wheat belt of eastern
Washington brought high prices. Military centers such
as Camp Lewis (now Fort Lewis) also expanded.

The end of the war brought sharp cutbacks in pro-
duction. Much unemployment resulted. Organized
labor protested with general strikes, including the "Se-
atde Revolution of 1919," in which about 60,000
workers walked off dieir jobs. The Great Depression
during the 1930's brought even greater reductions in
many industries. Food-processing remained Washing-
ton's only stable industry. Other industries that kept
producing on a small scale included metalworking and
aircraft construction. These activities, with construction
of Bonneville and Grand Coulee dams, helped Wash-
ington regain some prosperity during the late 1930's.
The 1940's and 1950's. World War II (1939-1945)
brought further expansion of the aircraft and shipbuild-
ing industries. In 1943, the U.S. government built an
atomic energy center, the Hanford Works, in the deso-
late land of central Washington. Thousands of workers
moved into the region. In just a few years, the small

towns of Richland, Pasco, and Kennewick grew into
large, prosperous cities. Establishment and expansion
of military bases spurred the development of other cen-
tral and eastern Washington cities. Many persons who
came to Washington to work in wartime defense plants
stayed after the war.

Some activities that had been very important to
Washington's economy declined during this period.
World War II disrupted merchant shipping in the
Pacific Ocean. The communist conquest of China in
1949 cut off a major source of trade between Washing-
ton and the Far East. Washington fishing fleets de-
creased in size as Japanese and Russian fishing boats
began to take more and more fish from northern Pacific
fishing areas. Salmon stopped breeding in many Wash-
ington streams because the rivers had been dammed or
had become polluted. Many canneries went out of
business because labor costs became too high and be-
cause they did not have enough fish to can.

New dams were built on the Columbia River. They
included Chief Joseph, McNary. and The Dalles, all
completed in the late 1 950's. Irrigation water, chemical
fertilizers, and federal government support for certain
crops helped Washington farmers.

Washington Today is working to develop its vast
natural resources for the benefit of its people. Progress
has been most dramatic in the Columbia Basin, where
irrigation is turning thousands of acres of dry land into
rich farmland. Farms are larger and have more ma-
chines. They are also more closely linked to food-proc-
essing and marketing operations. Businesses and indus-
tries in rural towns have grown to meet the needs of a
growing population.

Development of the Columbia River has led to the
growth of interior ports and to an increase in river
shipping. Several new dams, inckiding John Day,
Priest Rapids, Rocky Reach, and Wanapum, were
built during the 1960's. Several more dams are under
construction. In 1961, the United States and Canada
signed a treaty providing for cooperative development
of additional hydroelecUic and river-control projects on
the Columbia and its tributaries. The agreement re-
ceived final approval in 1964.

Washington's economy depends heavily on money
for defense projects and other income from the federal
government. For example, when the Boeing Company
has large government contracts, the Seattle region pros-

THE GOVERNORS OF WASHINGTON

Party

1. Elisha p. Ferry Republican

2. John Harte McGraw Republican

3. John Rankin Rogers Democratic-

Poputist

4. Henry McBride Republican

5. Albert Edward Mead Republican

6. Samuel G. Cosgrove Republican

7. Marion E. Hay Republican

8. Ernest Lister Democratic

9. Louis Folwell Hart Republican

10. Roland H. Hartley Republican

11. Clarence D. Martin Democratic

12. Arthur B. Langlie Republican

13. Monrad C. Wallgren Democratic

14. Arthur B. Langlie Republican

15. Albert D. Rossellini Democratic

16. Daniel J. Evans Republican

Term
1889-1893
1893-1897
1897-1901

1901-1905
1905-1909

1909
1909-1913
1913-1919
1919-1925
1925-1933
1933-1941
1941-1945
1945-1949
1949-1957
1957-1965
1965-

pels. But when it fails to get major contracts, many
persons may lose their jobs. Other businesses also suffer
because the unemployed workers cannot afford to buy
their products.

The state faces the challenge of vailing and expand-
ing its private industries. By doing so, Washington
could reduce its dependence on government business
and assistance. The Boeing Company has taken steps
in this direction by designing and selling several new
types of commercial airplanes. The lumber industry is
turning out more finished and semifinished wood prod-
ucts. Output of wood pulp and paper is also rising.

The state is making efforts to attract tourists and new

WASHINGTON

businesses. The 1962 Seattle World's Fair was planned,
in pari, to promote tourism. The Space Needle, built
during the fair, became a symbol of Seattle. To serve
vacationers, Washington companies are building ski
resorts patterned after European ski centers. The availa-
bility of cheap hydroelectric power and the introduction
of gas pipelines offer hope of future industrial growth.
In 1965, a large earthquake struck western Washing-
ton. It caused damage estimated at SI 5,000,000.

C. Brewster CoulteRj Howard J, Critchfielo, and Nard Jones

WASHINGTON

Study Aids

Related Articles in World Book include:

Mount Rushmore

National Memorial
Mount Vernon
President of the U.S.
Randolph (family)
Revolutionary War
Stamp Collecting (picture)
Stuart, Gilbert Charles
Sulgrave Manor
United States Constitution
Valley Forge
Washington, D.C.
Washington, Martha Custis
Washington Elm
Washington Monument
Washington's Birthday
Whiskey Rebellion

Adams, John
Bank of the United States
Bible (picture)
Bookplate (picture)
Braddock, Edward
Cabinet

Custis, George W. P.
Dinwiddie, Robert
Federal Hall (picture)
French and Indian Wars
Genet, Edmond
George Washington Birth-
place National Monument
Hamilton, Alexander
Jeflferson, Thomas
Knox, Henry
Lafayette, Marquis de
Masonry (picture)

Outline

I. Washington the Man
II. Early life (1732-1746)

A. Family Background E. Plantation Life

B. Washington's Parents F. Development of

C. Boyhood Character

D. Education

III. Washington the Surveyor (1747.1752)

IV. Early Military Career (1753-1758)

A. Messenger to the French D. Braddock's De-

B. First Military Action feat

C. Surrender of Fort E. Frontier Com-

Necessitv mander

V. The Peaceful Years (1759-1773)

A. Marriage C Farmer and Landowner

B. Legislator D. Social Life
VI. The Coming Revolution (1774-1775)

A. First Continental B. Elected Commander

Congress in Chief

VII. "First in War" (1775-1783)

A. Symbol of Independ- D. Shortage of Supplies

ence E. Winning the War

B. Discouragement F. Turning Down a

C. The Army Crown
VIII. "First in Peace" (1784-1789)

A. Constitutional Conven- B. Elected President
tion
IX. First Administration (1789-1793)

A. Inauguration Day F. New National Capital

B. Life in the Execu- G. Constitutional Debate

tive Mansion H. First Veto

C. New Precedents of I. Rise of Political

Government Parties

D. Cabinet J. Re-EIection

E. Finances

X. Second Administration (1793-1797)

A. Neutrality Proclamation E. Cabinet Scandal

B. Relations with France F. Farewell Ad-

C. Whisky Rebellion dress

D. Relations with Britain

XI. "First in the Hearts of His Countrymen" (1797-1799)
A. Recall to Duty B. Death

Questions

Why is Washington called the "Father of His Country"?

When did Washington hrst notice that the British
treated .Americans as second-class citizens?

How did Washington react to his first sound of bullets
in war?

What was Washington referring to when he said; "I
went out, was soundly beaten, lost them all . . ."?

How did Wzishington become the owner of Mount
Vernon?

When and why did Washington make his only trip
outside of America?

Why did Washington's presidential receptions usually
end at 9 p.m.?

As a farmer, how was Washington ahead of his time?

How did Washington show the Second Continental
Congress that he was ready to defy Great Britain?

Who praised Washington as "First in war, first in
peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen"?

Books to Read

CuNLIFFE, NLarcus. George Washington: Man and Monuwenl.
Little, Brown, 1958. The author tries to separate
Washington the myth from Washington the man.

Foster, Genevieve. George Washinglorrs World. Scribner,
1941. Washington's place in world history.

Freeman, Douglas .S. George Washington. 1 vols. Scribner,
1948-1957. Pulitzer prize winner. The last volume was
written by two associates, John Alexander Carroll and
Mary Wells Ashworth, after Freeman's death.

JuDsoN, Clara L George Washington: Leader of the People.
FoUett, 1951.

MoNTROss, LvNN. Washington and the Revolution. Houghton,
1960. The story of Washington the general.

North, Sterling. George Washington: Frontier Colonel.
Random House, 1957.

Padover, Saul K. The Washington Papers. Harper, 1957.

WASHINGTON, TREATY OF

WASHINGTON, LAWRENCE. See Washington,
George (Development of Character; Only Foreign
Trip).

WASHINGTON, MARTHA CUSTIS (1731-1802), was
the wife of George Washington. When he took office as
the first President in 1789, she became America's first
First Lady.

Martha Washington was born on June 21, 1731, near
Williamsburg, Va. Her father, Colonel John Dand-
ridge, was a wealthy landowner. Martha had no fonnal
schooling. Until she married Washington, she had never
traveled beyond Virginia. At the age of 1 7, she married
Daniel Parke Custis, a wealthy Virginia planter who
was 13 years older than she. They had four children,
two of whom died in childhood. The other two died be-
fore Washington became President. Fhe death of Custis
in 1 757 made her one of the richest women in Virginia.

No one knows when Martha Custis first met George
Washington. They may have met at a neighbor's home
in Williamsburg early in 1 758. Washington was then a
colonel in the militia. She was eight months older than
he. They were married on Jan. 6, 1 759.

Washington called his wife by her childhood nick-
name, '"Patsy." During the Revolutionary War, she
traveled long distances to share his hardships. Mrs.
Washington joined him at his camp at Valley Forge,
Pa., during the winter of 1 777-1 778. She also spent the
harsh winters of 1778-1779 and 1779-1780 with him in
camp at Morristown, N.J. .She organized a women's
sewing circle and mended clothes for the troops.

\s First Lady, Mrs. Washington managed the Presi-
dent's home with dignity and grace. But she did not eii-
joy being First Lady. She said she felt like a "state
prisoner." Many persons called her "Lady Washing-
ton." But Mrs. Washington dressed so plainly that peo-
ple often mistook her for the family maid.

After Washington's death in 1799, she continued to
live at Mount Vernon, their estate. Shortly before she
died on May 22, 1802, she burned the letters Washing-
ton had written her. Mrs. Washington was buried

at Mount Vernon, cnticany reviewed by Mary Wells Ashworth

Related Articles in World Book include:

Forms of Water

Cloud

Iceberg

Dew

Liquid

Fog

Mineral Water

Frost

Rain

Geyser

Sea Water

Purification of

Glacier

Sleet

Ground Water

Snow

Hail

Spring

Haze

Steam

Heavy Water

Waterfall

Humidity

Waterspout

Ice

Whirlpool
Waterways

Canal

Lake

River

Inland Waterway

Ocean

Unclassified

Air Conditioning

Hydraulics

Pump

Artesian Well

Hydrography

Salt

Boiling Point

Hydrophone

Transportation

Conservation

Hydrophonics

Water Clock

Dam

Hydrosphere

Water Meter

Erosion

Hydrostatics

Water Power

Evaporation

Hydrotherapy

Water Softening

Floods and Flood

Irrigation

Water Supply

Control

Osmosis

Waterproofing

Fluoridation

Perspiration

WeU

II.

III.

IV.

Outline

What Water Is and How It Behaves

A. Heavy Water D. Evaporation and Boiling

B. Ice E. Water under Pressure

C. Surface Tension
The Work of Water

A. Water Shapes the Surface of the Earth

B. The Solvent Action of Water
Water in living Cells
The Natural Water Cycle

A. Rainfall C. Water under the Ground

B. Water Currents

in the Ocean
V. Purifying Water

A. Softening Water B. Converting Sea Water
VI. Water Pov»er
VII. The Thirsty Plants
VIM. Water in Industry and Transportation
IX. The Water Line of Civilizalion

Questions

How important is water to human life?

What do two gases form when they unite?

What are other forms of "solid" water besides ice?

What happens when water evaporates? Does cold or
warm water evaporate faster?

Why does water boil?

Why does it take longer to boil an egg on a mountain
than it does at sea level?

Why is water called the universal solvent?

How much of the human body is water?

What is the longest time a person has been known to
live without water?

How much of the earth is covered with water?

Why is absolutely pure water a rare substance?

How is water purified for human use?

What makes water hard? How can it be softened?

About how much water does it take for a plant to pro-
duce one pound of food? A bushel of com? How much
water does it take altogether to produce a pound of beef?

100

WATER BALLET. See Swimming (Water Ballet).

WATER BAROMETER. See B.^rometer.

WATER BEECH. Sec Ironvvood.

WATER BEETLE is the name given to many separate
families of beetles that live in the water. Typical Vkiater
beetles arc the w/nrligigs, the diving beetles, the crawling
water beetles, and the ivater scavenger beetles. Some of these
insects live in the water all their lives. Others live in
or near the water only in the larval (young) stage.

Whirligigs whirl on the top of the water. They have
antennae (short feelers), long-clawed front legs, paddle-
shaped hind legs, and compound eyes. These eyes are
divided into two pairs, a lower pair and an upper pair.
Diving beetles have long, threadlike antennae. Their
hind legs are flat and fringed, and used for swimming.
Water scavenger beetles have short, stubby antennae.
Like the diving beetle, they eat small fish and larvae of
insects. All water beetles are well suited to life in
aquariums.

Scientific Classification. Water beetles are in the order
Coleoplerii. The crawling water beetles belong to the fam-
ily Haliplidae; the dising beetles to Dyttscidae; and the
whirligig to G^rinidae. The giant water scavenger is in
the family Hydrophilidae. It is genus Hydrous, species
H. triangularis. H. H. Ross

See also Beetle (picture, A Giant Water Beede).

WATER BIRD. For examples, see Bird (color pictures.
Water Birds; Wild Ducks and Wild Geese) and also
the lists of Water Birds and Oceanic Birds in the
Related Articles section.

WATER BOA. See Anaconda.

WATER BOATMAN. See Water Bug.

WATER BUFFALO. .Several kinds of wild oxen may be
called water buffaloes. .Some have been domesticated,
and are among the most useful of all farm animals. The
water buffalo of India is one of the largest of wild cattle.
The bulls (males) are often 5 to 6j feet tall, and their
horns may spread 12 feet from tip to tip, measured along
the curve. The horns sweep out and back to form almost
a circle, and are three-sided. The Indian buffalo's hide
is bluish black, and is easy to see through its thin hair.
Wild Indian buffaloes graze in herds of about 50 ani-
mals. Both wild and domesticated buffaloes have a
keen sense of smell.

^E*^-**^

Cornelia Clarke

The Water Scavenger Beetle has swimming legs fringed
with bristles. It is shown from above, left, and below, right.

They like to wallow in the mud and water a large
part of the day. They are fierce when wild, and a water
buffalo is said to be a match for a large lion or tiger.
The Indian buffalo has long been used in the rice fields
of Asia, and makes rice farming possible on a large
scale. This powerful animal can plow knee deep in mud.
It has been imported to many other parts of the world —
Egypt, Spain, Italy, Hungary, southern .Soviet regions,
southern Asia, the East Indies, and the Philippines.

Buffalo hide is tough and thick, and makes good
leather. The milk of the cow is nourishing, with more fat
than the milk of domestic cows. It is used in India for
making a liquid butter.

The carabao is a smaller water buffalo of the Philip-
pines. It is also important in farming. A native wild buf-
falo on Mindoro Island is called the tamarau. Africa is
the home of two types of wild buffalo that are not actu-
ally water buffaloes. These are the big Cape buffalo,
which has flattened horns, and the smaller Congo buf-
falo of central Africa.

Scientific Classification. Water buffalo are in the sub-
family Boviniw of the cattle family, Bovidae. The Indian
water buflfalo is a member of the genus Bubalus, species
B. bubalis. Donald F. Hoffmeister

See also Buffalo; Carabao; China (picture, Chinese
Farmers Lack Modern Tools).

Powerful Water Buffaloes

will work in bogs and flooded
fields where other work ani-
mals connot find footing. Rice
farmers in Southeast Asia use
them in their rice paddies be-
cause water buffaloes enjoy
mud and water.

WATER BUG

WATER BUG is the general name given to insects
which spend all or part of their lives in the water. The
most familiar of the water bugs are the water hontmrn,
the bark swimmers, the giant water bugs, and the water
striders. The large Oriental cockroach is also sometimes
called the water bug.

Both water boatmen and back swimmers have long,
flattened, fringed hind legs. These legs serve as oars and
cause the insects to move through the water. Water
boatmen eat algae and bottom scum, and back swim-
mers eat smaller animals which live in the water. These
insects come to the surface for air from time to time.
During the winter they lie inactive in the mud at the
bottom of the water. The water boatmen lay their eggs
and attach them to the stems of plants. Back swimmers
often lay their eggs within the stems of plants. Back
swimmers receive their name because of their peculiar
habit of swimming through the water while lying on
their backs.

The giant bug that is often seen flying around electric
lights in hot weather, casting its great shadows on the
ground, is a water bug. This bug leaves its home in the
water for short periods in the air, to look for a mate or
for a new pool. Water striders have long spideriike legs.
They do not swim through the water but stride about
on the surface film. Many water bugs can cause painful
bites.

Scientific Classification. Water bugs belong to the cla.ss
Iiistrtii and order HetnifUera. The water boatmen be-
long to tiie family Corixidae, the back swimmers to the
family Aotomrtidae, the giant water bugs to the family
Beloslomaltdae, and the water striders to the family
Hydrobatidae, or Gerridae. R. E. Blackwelder

Related Articles in World Book include:

Bladdcrwort
Bulrush
Cattail
C:rcss

Duckweed
Lotus
Papyrus
Pondweed

Rush
Seaweed
Water Hyacinth
W?ter Lily

Diatom

104

Water Polo combines parts
of basketball and hockey. The
players try to get the ball into
the opposing goal to score.

WATER POLO is an in-
ternational water sport tliat
requires endurance, quiclv
thinking, and team play.
Many sports leaders con-
sider it the roughest of all
contests, although some of
its rougher elements have
been sacrificed for more sci-
entific play.

The objective in water
polo is to throw or place
the ball through the op-
posing team's goal. Seven
players make up a team —
thi-ee forwards, three backs,

and a goalkeeper. The goals measure 10 feet between
goal posts by 1 foot deep, and are enclosed at the sides
and the rear by a net. A crossbar connects the goal posts
about 3 feet above the water. The players use a leather
or rubber ball the size of a fully inflated soccer ball.
They play in deep water on a course that can range
from 20 by 60 feet to 60 by 90 feet. The ball is dropped
into the water to start play, and players mo\e the ball
by balancing it on one hand, passing, or dribbling (keep-
ing the ball in front of the head and between the arms).
The ball must be handled by two or more players before
a legal goal can be made. Each game lasts 20 minutes.

Water polo combines features of basketball and
hockey. The players must be exceptionally strong swim-
mers, and the goalkeeper must be able to anticipate
attacks on the goal and surge high out of the water to
block shots.

The sport began in England in the 1870's, and was
brought (o the swimming pools of the United .States in
the 1880's. At that time, water polo was a rough sport,
and players occasionally strangled opponents and tried
to drown them. Water polo teams from Hungary have
been the most consistent winners in international com-
petition in the last 30 years. Water polo is played in the
Olympic Games. Sam j. Greller

WATER POWER. Water provides a valuable source of
power because it is dependable, safe, controllable, and
cheap. After man uses up coal or gasoline, he cannot re-
place them. But the water he uses as a source of energy
does not become completely used up. The constant
cycle of nature provides man with a constant supply of
water for power. The heat of the sun evaporates ocean
water. The water forms in clouds and falls as rain or
snow. It then runs from the higher levels of ground
to the sea, where it again evaporates. This natural cycle
goes on day after day, year after year (see Water
[color picture]).

Water power comes from various devices that man
has built in order to permit him to use the energy found
in water as it moves from higher to lower places on the
surface of the earth. In using water power, man is har-
nessing the effects of gravity upon the water. The energy

Phil stclnccki

in water power comes both from the weight of the water
and from the head upon it. The head of the water is
measured by the vertical distance through which the
water falls in performing work. The pull of gravity gives
a weight of 62.4 pounds to every cubic foot of water.
Therefore, a column of water one foot square at the
base and 30 feet high would exert a weight of 1,872
pounds. When this weight strikes a machine's wheel, it
turns it, thus producing useful energy.

Measuring Water Power. Water power is usually
measured by the horsepower unit. One horsepower is a
force that will raise 33,000 pounds one foot in one min-
ute, or 550 pounds one foot in one second. To estimate
the horsepower of a waterfall, multiply the flow in cubic
feet per second by the height of the fall in feet. Then
multiply this product by .1 13 — which is equal to 62.4,
the weight of a cubic foot of water, divided by 550. Ac-
cording to this rule, the power that exists in a waterfall
50 feet high with a flow of 500 cubic feet per second
would be 50 X 500 X .113, or 2,825 horsepower.

Water as a Source of Power. The first devices to
produce water power were fairly simple machines. Man
built a platform by the side of a stream and attached a
wheel with blades. When the water touched the blades,
the wheel turned. The power from the wheel could be
used to run simple machinery. At first, this power
lifted water from a river, or ground wheat between
heavy stones tliat were turned by the wheel.

Man soon learned to improve his ways of using water
power. He built dams that caught the floodwaters and
stored them. Then the water could be let out only when
needed. In this way, a stream could furnish water even
during dr>' seasons. Dams also raised the water to a
higher level in order to increase the head of the water
and deliver more power. See Dam, with its list of Re-
lated Articles; Irrigation.

Water power as a source of electric power began with
the development of the water turbine in 1832. This
permitted much greater efficiency in the use of water
power. One of the first electric generators powered by
water was put to use in .\ppleton. Wis., in 1882. Gen-
erators now produce electric power to run our machinery,

105

A Water Skier practices on shore, above, before testing his
skill in the water. Sl<imming over the water, a skier holds on
to a tow line extending from a speeding motorboat, right.

cypress Gardens, Florida

to light our homes and streets, and to perform a thou-
sand other tasks. See Electric Power; Turbine.

World Water-Power Production. The potential water
power of the entire world has been estimated at about
660,U00,{J()0 horsepower, or about four times the power
from every other source. But only about 1 3 per cent of
the total water power has been developed.

The continent of Africa has a heavy annual rainfall
and a high interior plateau that drops abruptly to the
sea. These conditions give Africa more potential water
power than any other continent. The Congo River basin
alone has one fourth of the world's possible water power.
At .Stanley Falls, 15,000,000 horsepower could be de-
veloped. But Africa has done litde to develop its water
power. Asia ranks second among the continents in po-
tential water power, but irregular rainfall limits constant
production of power.

In contrast to Africa and Asia, North America has
about 13 per cent of the world's potential water power.
But it has developed over 40 per cent of all the water
power used. The United States alone has over 27 per
cent of the world's used water power. hope hoi.way

Related Articles. See the sections on Electric Power in
various state articles, such as Arizona (Electric Power).
See also the following articles:

Conservation Electric Power Reservoir

Dam Irrigation Turbine

WATER PRESSURE. See Hydraulics.

WATER PURIFICATrON. .See Water Supply.

WATER SKIING is a popular outdoor sport in which
persons skim swiflly over the surface of the water on
skis. It resembles snow skiing, because water skiers
wear similar, though wider, skis of varying lengths. The
water skier holds on to a towrope attached to a motor-
boat and is pulled across the surface of the water in this
way. Outboard boats of 25 horsepower and over, and in-
board boats of 50 horsepower or more, are the kinds
most often used for water skiing. The towrope is usually

io6

about 75 feet long and may be made of manila hemp,
cotton, or other material. Water skiing equipment can
be rented at most waterside resorts. The American
Water Ski Association and other groups offer booklets
for the beginner and the advanced skier. Guy w. Hughes

WATER SOFTENING is a method of removing from
water the minerals that make it hard. Hard water does
not dissolve soap readily. It forms scale in pipes,
boilers, and other equipment in which it is used. The
principal methods of softening water are the lime-soda
process and the ion-exchange process.

In the lime-soda process, soda ash and lime are added
to the water in amounts determined by chemical tests.
These chemicals combine with the calcium and mag-
nesium in the water to make insoluble compounds that
settle to the bottom of the water tank.

In the ion-exchange process, the water filters through
minerals called zeolites (see Zeolite). As the water
passes through the filter, the sodium ions in the zeolite
are exchanged for the calcium and magnesium ions
in the water, and the water is softened. After household
softeners become exhausted, a strong solution q{ sodium
chloride (salt) is passed through the filter to replace the
sodium that has been lost. The use of two exchange
materials makes it possible to remove both metal and
acid ions from water. This method has been used to
convert salt water to fresh water. c. Fred ournham

WATER SPORTS include all sports that are played
under, on, or above the water. Some are traditional, like
swimming, fishing, diving, and boating. Others were
developed in the 1800's and 1900's.

Among more recent water sports are aquaplaning,
skin diving, spearfishing, surfing, water polo, and water
skiing. The Olympic Games program includes swim-
ming, diving, and other water sports (see Olympic
Games). All water sports mentioned here have separate
articles in World Book. SamJ.Greller

WATER STRIDER. See Water Bug.

WATER SUPPLY. Our earth has life because it has
water. Wherever there is water, even in small amounts,
life is usually found. But where water supply is limited,
there is little life. Few places on earth have less life than
the desert sands and the polar icecaps.

People need only a small amount of water to live,
because they drink only a few quarts each day. This
amount would be more than enough if man used water
onlv for drinking purposes. But civilized man has many
uses for water besides drinking it. He uses it to bathe
himself, to cook his food, and to wash his dishes and
clothing. Water irrigates his crops and thereby increases
his food supply. Modern factories run on water. It takes
270 tons of water to make a ton of steel. 1,400 tons of
water to make a ton of rayon, and 4,700 tons of water
to make a ton of synthetic rubber. For cveiy gallon of
water used for cooking and drinking, 25 to 50 gallons
are used to wash and flush away dirt and human waste.
Without good water supplies, it would be impossible
for a modern city to meet all these human needs. Ameri-
can water systems produce enough water each day to
supply every person with about 1 50 gallons.

It is not surprising that cities have grown up near
large water supplies furnished by rivers and lakes. Na-
tions without adequate water supplies arc never pros-
perous. Early civilization flourished in Mesopotamia
near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. These same civili-
zations disappeared when water reservoirs and canals
filled with silt and when the irrigation systems failed.

Sources of a Water Supply

Natural sources supply the cheapest water available.
In areas that have no other source of water, people get
water from wells. If the underground water is unsuit-
able, rain water from roofs can be collected and stored
in cisterns (storage tanks for water). Gro\\ing commu-
nities and indusuies soon use more water than wells can
provide. \Vhen this happens, they use the water sup-
plied by streams and lakes. Along seacoasts or on islands
where there is no supply of fresh water, people often
make fresh water from sea water.

Rain Wafer supplied most individual needs during
the early growth of the United .States. There were no
public water-supply systems, and wells had to be dug by
hand. The rain water drained from the roof into a cis-
tern that was usually built under the back porch or
kitchen. The water was then pumped from the cistern
into an old-fashioned sink. Today, only a few localities
depend on rain water for their water supplies.

Rain water is sojt. This means that it contains no
dissolved mineral salts from the ground. But it does
contain dust from the air and from the surfaces that it
touches. Dust particles can be removed by filtering rain
water through sand.

Underground Water exists even.-where beneath the
surface of the ground. It may be near the surface or
down ver)' deep. It may be salty or fresh, soft or hard.
The carbon dioxide in some tmderground water corrodes
metal pipes. Underground water seldom contains bac-
teria because it has been filtered through the soil.

Ground Water is rain water that has soaked into the
ground and slowly filtered downward. It eventually
comes to a zone where the soil and the rocks are satu-
rated with water. The top of this saturated zone is called
the water table. .See Ground Water.

fta^.;

Chioap.t nridgo & Iron Co.

A 77-Foot-High Watersphere stores water for the village
of Colomo, Wis. It has a 40,000-gollon water capacity.

Wells that reach the water table yield large quantities
of water, provided the pores in the soil are large enough
to let the water pass through. In indusuial and irrigated
areas, the water is almost always taken from the ground
faster than it can filter down from the surface. This
depletes ground-water storage, and lowers the level of
the water table. The water level may fall so deep that
pumping out water becomes expensive. See Well.

Floodwaters are sometimes spread in large beisins to
increase the supply of ground water. The basins hold
the floodwater within a large area. They let the flood-
water filter slowly into the ground, instead of flowing
away rapidly (see Basin).

Surface Water supplies most of the water for large
cities and industries. These supplies consist of large lakes
and ri\ers, or smaller rivers on which dams have been
built to store floodwaters for future use (see Dam [What
Does a Dam Do?|). Chicago, Milwaukee, Cleveland,
and other cities get their water from the Great Lakes.
St. Louis and New Orleans use water from the Missis-
sippi River. New York Cit\-, Boston, and Baltimore
hav'e large storage reservoirs on upland streams.

Cities that depend on lake-water supplies build tun-
nels or pipelines and connect tlicm to an oflshore water
intake, where the water is relatively pure. Intakes are
usually towers equipped with screens to keep out debris.
They also have gates that contiol the depth at which
the water is withdrawn. The pumps and purification
plants are located on shore.

Cities remove river water in much the same v\'ay as
they remove lake water. They construct the intake up-
stream from the city to avoid taking in impurities from
water the cir>^ has already used. But the same river water
mav be used by several cities before it finally passes into
the ocean. For this reason, river water is often less
sanitan' than lake water.

107

HOW CITY WATER IS PURIFIED

LIME

ALUM

ACTIVATED CARBON

CHLORINE

City wafer is often purified by the Filtration method. First, if is
pumped to the chemical building where lime, activated carbon, alum,
and chlorine are added. From there, it passes to the coagvlation
basin where the chemicals are thoroughly mixed with the water.
The chemical reaction causes most impurities to coagulate, the
solid particles settling to the bottom as the water passes through
the sedimentation basin. To do away with bad tastes or odors which
remain, activated carbon is added before the water passes through
a bed of floe (gelatin mat), sand, and gravel in the filter basin. As
the water leaves the filtered water reservoir, chlorine and aluminum
sulfate are added to complete the purifying process before it is
pumped into the distributing main for daily use in homes and factories.

TUNNEL TO OTHER PUMPING STATIONS

Sea Water. Most of the water on earth is the salty
water of the oceans. The supph- of usable water would
be almost limitless if the salt could be removed easily
from sea water. On seacoasts or islands that have no
fresh water, it is sometimes cheaper to remove the salt
from the sea water than to bring in fresh water by ship.
But it is not cheap to remo\-e salt from sea water. The
process is complicated and requires much expensi\c
equipment (see Water [Converting Sea Water]).

Stored Water. Streams sometimes have to be regu-
lated in order to have a sufficient supply of water when
and where it is needed. Man>- communities store flood-
water behind dams and release it during the summer to
keep the streams from getting too low. The regulation
of stieams may not supply enough water to meet the
needs of cities and factories. In such cases, pipelines and
tunnels must be built to bring additional water from
other rivers (see Aqueduct).

Cities often build reserx'oirs in tlie hills and moun-
tains some distance from the city, where land is cheaper
and the water purer. Reservoir water resembles lake
water and is much purer than river water. Because of
the high elevation, water can often be brought to the
cit\' without pumping it. Pipelines, tunnels, and canals
cariT the water from the reservoir to the city. The dams
that form the reservoir usually have built-in intakes.
See Reservoir.

How Water Is Purified

As commonly used, the term pure water means that
the water is satisfactor>- for the use that it serves. Thus,
pure water for industry may not be pure water for
drinking. Drinking water must be clear, cool, and free
of any special taste or odor. It should contain some, but
not much, mineral salt. It should also be free of all
harmful bacteria and chemicals. But industrial water
may also have to meet more rigid specifications. For
example, water used in high-pressure steam boilers must
be completely free of dissolved oxygen, and it should
contain only a small amount of dissolved salts. The
parts in some pieces of electronic equipment must be
washed with water that is almost entirely free of dis-
solved substances. This water must be distilled several
times before it is pure enough to be used (see Distilla-
tion).

Most cities use three basic processes to purify water:
(1) coagulation and sedimentation, (2) filtration, and
(3) disinfection.

Coagulation and Sedimentation. A coagulant is a
chemical that forms a small, fluffy mass called floe in
natural water. Floe particles are about the size of snow-
flakes, and they help remove the suspended sediment
from water. They gather the suspended matter in water
and carry it to the bottom of large sedimentation tanks.
-Aluminum sulfate, also called fl/ter alum, is the most
common coagulant.

\ feeding machine continually measures out the
amount of alum needed. A stream of water carries the
alum to the point at which raw (natural) water enters
the purification plant. After about 30 minutes, the
coagulant has been thoroughly mi.xed into the incoming
water and the floe has formed. The coagulated water
then passes slowly through sedimentation plants where
the floe settles to the bottom along with the suspended
particles. Large scraping machines periodically remove

WATER SUPPLY

the mud or sludge that forms on the bottom of the sedi-
mentation tank. In some places, the sedimentation tank
is emptied about twice a year.

The process of coagulation and sedimentation re-
moves most of the bacteria and suspended matter from
water. But to produce a completely clear water and to
remo\-e all bacteria, the water must pass from the sedi-
mentation tanks to filters.

Filtration. \Vater filters consist of fine sand placed in
concrete or steel tanks. The sand forms a bed about 30
inches thick. The water filters down through the sand
to an underdrainage system that collects the water and
carries it to a clear water-storage basin. Eveiy minute
2 or 3 gallons pass through each square foot of the bed.

The first few inches of die sand bed trap the floe and
bacteria that remain in the water after coagulation and
sedimentation. The filter must be \vashed every day or
so because the floe clogs the sand bed. Washing is done
by forcing clean water up through the sand. \Vater
gutters above the sand bed collect the dirty water and
carry it off to a drain.

Disinfection is designed to keep water from carrying
infectious diseases. Disinfection can be accomplished
in a number of ways. Heating is the most reliable method,
but it is not practical for large quantities of drinking
water. Most water departments use chlorine because it is
cheap and acts rapidly (see Chlorine). Chemists find
it easy to detect and measure the amoimt of chlorine in
any given water supply. A very small amount of chlorine
quickly disinfects large quantities of water. One pound
of chlorine can disinfect 200.000 gallons of water. This
is more water than one person could drink in a thousand
years. Chlorine may be added to the water either before
coagulation and sedimentation or after the water has
been filtered.

Water may also be disinfected by processes using silver,
iodine, ozone, and ultraviolet light. But these processes
are not as cheap as chlorination. They also tend to be
less safe and must be carefully controlled.

Softening water can be done in a number of ways,
but the purpose of every method is to make soap easier
to use, to protect metal that comes in contact with the
water, and to make water generally more suitable for
home and industrial use. City water plants usually
soften water with lime or lime and soda. Water can also
be softened by a process of ion exchange (see Ioniza-
tion). A filter bed of zeolite, a claylike material, gives
up its sodium in exchange for the calcium in water (see
Zeolite). This softens the water that passes through
the zeolite bed.

Other Methods of Purification are used to remove
undesirable tastes, odors, and minerals from water, or to
give the water a special quality. After the water has
passed through the filters, lime is sometimes added to
keep the water from rusting pipes and the various me-
tallic parts of household plumbing systems. Odors can
be removed from water b\' aeration (forcing the water
into air in a fine spray). Many dues fluoridate drinking
water to help reduce tooth decay (see Fluorid.^tion).

Distributing Water

After the water has been purified, it must be dis-
tributed to homes, businesses, and industries. Water

io8a

A WORLD BOOK SCIENCE PROJECT MAKING PURE WATER

The purpose of this project is to learn how water from lakes and other sources
is treated to make it pure enough to drink. You can get the materials you need
to build a model purification plant from a hardware store and lumber yard.

PURIFICATION
PLANT

^CHEMICAL BUILDING

Most large cities use purification plants similar to the model,
above, to make water from lakes and other sources pure enough
to drink. The water first flows into cribs, which strain out large
particles of sand and other impurities. Pipes carry the water to
a mixing basin where it is thoroughly mixed with chemicals. The

chemicals cause fine impurities to clump together and settle to
the bottom of the sed/mentof/on basin. Finally, the water flows
slowly through filters mode mostly of thick layers of sand and
gravel, and collects in a reservoir. To complete the purification,
chlorine is added as the water moves from the reservoir to homes.

MATERIALS

Clear Plastic Tubing and Adhesive Tape

Tin Plate, Plastic,
Cork, Screw, and Nuts

Small Electric Water Pump

Lumber needed to make the display board, shelves, and stand is shown, below. You will also
need several different colors of paints to represent the chemicals added to the water.

1 in. X 6 in. lumber
(stielves)

24 in. X 36 in, plywood (display board) l\^

4 bolts and nuts

Paint

1 in. X 2 in. tomber
(stand)

Illustrated by Kaymond Feilman for WORLD BOOK

ASSEMBLY

The Lake and Crib. Drill a hole near one corner of the rectangu-
lar pan as shown, be/ow. Push the funnel spout through the hole
and solder it in place. Solder the strainer basket to the top of
(he funnel. Put mounds of sand at the other end of the pan.

Tea strainer basket
Funnel

The Mixer. Cut and fold a tin plate as shown, be/ow. Drill a
hole above the fold. Put plastic fins in slits in a cork. Use a
screw as an axle. Push it through holes tn the cork and tin plate.
A nut on each side of the tin piate holds the axle in place.

Fine sand

The Filter is a plastic container with layers of ingredients
that filter impurities out of the water. Make a hole in the
bottom of the container and insert a plastic tubing drain.
Then put in layers of cotton, pebbles, coarse sand, fine
sand, and charcoal paste.

The Filtered Water Reservoir

in a real plant holds water ready
to be piped out to users. But in
the model, it sends water back to
the starting basin for use again.

The Display Board and Stand

are assembled as shown, obove.
Draw a plan on the board showing
where each piece goes. Point the
chemical building and consumer sec-
tion. Install braces for the shelves.
Put the containers in place and string
the plastic tubing from one to an-
other. Use adhesive tape to hold
the tubing in place on the board.

109

The Reservoir and Tanks

at West Seattle, Wash., can
store 8,500,000 gallons of
water. The water is delivered
to the city through pipelines
and tunnels.

II Water Works

distribution is the most expensive part of a water-supply
system, because it requires a vast network of pipes.

Distribution systems consist of four parts: (1) pumping
stations, (2) street mains, (3) reservoirs or tanks, and
(4) the plumbing and pipes in buildings.

Pumping stations lift the water to various heights and
maintain enough pressure to force the water through
the system to the fixtures or hydrants where it is used.
Water mains run beneath the streets and connect at
each intersection. They form a network of pipes that
carries the water to every consumer and every fire
hydrant.

At various times a city will use an excess of water,
because of a large fire or some other drain on the water
supply. In such cases, the pumping stations cannot
pump enough water. For this reason, a city must have
storage tanks to supply the additional amount of water.
The tanks help keep a uniform water pressure through-
out the city. During the day, the water level in the tanks
falls, but the tanks are refilled at night when the city
uses less water.

A pipe called the service connection connects the street
main to the piping system in homes and buildings. The
water company installs a water meter on the service
connection, usually near the sidewalk or curb (see
Water Meter). The water company owns all parts of
the water-suppl)- system up to and including the water
meter. The property owner must install all other pipes.

Conserving the Water Supply

Water is no longer free for the taking. The day is
almost gone when cities and industries can get water
from a nearby stream at the mere cost of pumping it
out. Water now has to be stored, transported, purified,
and distributed like any other product. Marketing of
this kind takes money.

Many communities claim that they have a water
shortage. Actually, there is plenty of water available,
but it is neither cheap nor free. For example, the
Susquehanna River could easily supply all the water
needed by 100,000,000 people, even if none of the water
returned to the river for re-use. Some sections of the
United States, however, do have a genuine water
shortage. This is especially true of the Great American
Desert, which covers most of the western United States.
In these states, the limited amount of water greatly limits
the number of people and industries in any one region.

For more than 50 years, the Department of the Inte-
rior has been constructing great storage and transporta-
tion systems to conserve the water supplies of the United
States. But large quantities of water still flowdown to

the sea without being used. See Conserv.\tion (Water
Conservation).

History

About 2000 B.C., persons in India filtered water
through charcoal, kept it in copper containers, and
exposed it to sunlight. In ancient times, people around
the Mediterranean Sea knew how to dig wells and to
collect water in cisterns. They also knew how to treat
the water to make it taste better, as well as to make it
safer to drink. Rome was the first city to have a fairly
complete water-supply system. It depended on nine
aquaducts that were from 10 to 50 miles long.

In 1829, the Chelsea Water Company built the first
water filters for the city of London. In 1871, Pough-
keepsie, N.Y., became the first large United States city
to use filters in processing its water supply. But most
cities still did not disinfect their water. About half the
population still had typhoid fever at some time in their
lives. After 1900, it became an accepted practice to
disinfect water. During the next 25 years, typhoid
fever disappeared almost completely from the United

States. John C. Geyer

Related Articles in World Book include:

Aqueduct Hydraulics

Sewage

Artesian Well Irrigation

Standpipe

Chlorire Plumbing

Water

Dam Pump

Water Meter

Filter Reservoir

Water Softening

Fluoridation Sea Water,

Well

Ground Water Purification

Outline

1. ScMrces of a Water Supply

A. Rain Water

D. Surface Water

B. Underground Water

E. Sea Water

C. Ground Water

F. Stored Water

II. How Water Is Purified

A. Coagulation and

D. Softening

Sedimentation

E. Other Methods

B. Filtration

of Purification

C. Disinfection

III. Distributing Water

IV. Conserving tlie Water Supply

V. History

Questions

Why do we need water supplies?

What is a cistern? .\ basin?

How do cities conserve and store water?

What is a water tabic?

What is soft water?

What do we mean by fnire drinking water?

How is chlorine used to help purify water?

What is filtration?

What is the function o(floc in purifying water?

IIO

WATER TABLE. See Drainage; Ground Water.

WATER TOWER. See Standpipe.

WATER TURBINE. See Turbine (Water Turbines).

WATER TURKEY. See Darter (bird).

WATER-VASCULAR SYSTEM. See Echinoderm.

WATER WHEEL changes tlie energy of falling water
into mechanical energy- which can be used for running
machinery. The best source of water power in nature is
found in waterfalls and rapids in rivers. The water is
directed into the wheel through a chute. The wheel is
mounted on an axle, which is connected by belts or
gearing with the machinery it is to operate. The wheel
has manv curved blades. The force with which the
water strikes the blades causes the wheel to rotate,
\\ hich makes the shaft turn. This rotates the shaft of the
machinery being dri\en.

There are two main types of water wheels, the verti-
cal and the horizontal. The vertical wheels include the
two most familiar types, the overshot and the undershot.
The amount of work which an overshot water wheel can
do is controlled by the weight and distance of the water
that falls on the wheel.

The overshot water wheel has many buckets around
its edge. The weight of the water falling into these buck-
ets causes the wheel to turn. The efficiency of this type
of water wheel sometimes reaches 80 per cent.

The undershot water wheel is built so the water
strikes against the buckets of the wheel at the bottom.
This type of wheel has such a low efficiency that it is
rarely used.

Historians believe that the first water wheel was
developed in the lOO's B.C. At that time it was used
mainly to grind com. Later it was used for many kinds
of mechanical operations. The water wheel was a major
source of power until the invention of the steam engine

in the 1700"s. Robert F. Paton

See also Hydraulics; Turbine (Water Turbines);
Water Power.

This Old Overshot Water Wheel in West Virginia is still
in use more than 1 50 years after it was first put into service.

WATERFALL

WATER WITCH. See Grebe.

WATER WONDERLAND. See Michigan.

WATERBUCK. Sec .Anielope (Kinds).

WATERBURY, Conn. (pop. 107,130; met. area 185,-
548; alt. 260 ft.), is known as the Brass Center of the
World. It lies on the Naugatuck River, 25 miles north
of Long Island Sound (see Connecticut [color map]).

Waterbury ranks first among the cities of die L'nited
States in the manufacture of brass and copper goods,
brass casting, sheet and rolled brass, and other brass-
ware products. Waterbury mills make the "blanks" for
L'nited States nickels and the coins for many South
American countries. Other products include buttons,
clocks, and foundry and machine-shop products.

People from nearby Farmington bought the \\'ater-
bury area from Indians in 1674. They established a
frontier outpost called Mattaluck. The name became
Waterbury when the town was incorporated in 1686.
The manufacture of brass goods began in 1802. Water-
bun' received its city charter in 1853. It has a mayor-
council type of government. albert e. Van dusen

WATERED STOCK. See .Stock, Capital.

WATERFALL is any sudden descent of a stream from a
higher to a lower level. In wearing down its channel, a
river uncovers certain layei-s of rock that are softer than
others. If the hard rock is farther upstream than the soft,
the channel below is worn more rapidly, and a waterfall
results. Sometimes the hard ledge forms the edge of a
vertical cliff, over which the water plunges.

If the volume of water is small, the fall may be called
a cascade. If the volume of water is large, a fall of this
sort is called a cataract. Niagara Falls is such a cataract.
Other noted cataracts are \'ictoria Falls on the Zam-
bezi River in Africa, the Falls of the Iguagu near the
Parana River in .South America, and the Grand Falls
of the Hamilton River in Labrador. Usually, however,
the term cataract is applied to a series of rapids or falls
caused by the flow of the stream over a rapidly sloping
rocky bed. Examples of these are the cataracts of the
Nile and the Orinoco rivers. Cataracts which have
small, gradual falls are termed rapids. Some of the most
noted rapids in North America are those at Sault Sainte
Marie, at the outlet of Lake Superior, and the rapids
in the Saint Lawrence River.

Small waterfalls or cascades are often of great height.
Such are the L'pper Yosemite Falls in California, 1,430
feet high; the Sutherland, New Zealand. 1,904 feet; and
the Staubbach of the .Mps, 980 feet. Some lower water-
falls are noted for their beauty. These include Mont-
morency Falls, near Quebec; Multnomah Falls, on the
Columbia Ri\er, Oregon; numerous cascades in the
Rocky and Selkirk mountains; and the Upper and
Lower falls in Yellowstone National Park.

Falls usually occur in mountainous countries. But
sometimes they are caused by the descent of streams to
a flood plain. The line along which several rivers flowing
into the same body of water descend to this lower level
is called the fall line. The fall line of those rivers south
of Chesapeake Bay which flow into the Atlantic Ocean
is marked by the location of manufacturing cities whose
sites were chosen because the\- were near water power,
which later became even more valuable as hydroelectric
power. E.xamples of these industrial centers are Rich-

III

WATERFALLS OF THE WORLD

-1,500 ft..

Each waterfall is drawn to scale, and is shown as it appears in its
natural setting. In cases where a series of falls have the same name
and are sometimes considered to be one fall, only the highest is shown.

I.OOOff

WATERFALLS OF NORTH AMERICA

Niagara

Yellowstone

Vernol

Yosemite

Illilouette

New York

Lower Falls

California

Lower Falls

California

193 ft.

Wyoming
308 ft.

317 feet.

California
320 ft.

370 ft.

Nevada

California
594 ft.

Bridolveil

California
620 ft.

-2,000 ft.-

OTHERS WATERFALLS OF THE WORLD

-1,500 ft.-

Giessbacli

Victoria

Suttierland

Gersoppc

King Edward VIII

Veltis

Trummelbach

Switzerland

Rhodesia

New Zealand

India

British Gutano

Norway

Switzerland

1 90 ft.

355 ft.

8 1 5 ft.

830 ft.

840 ft.

850 ft.

950 ft

(total —

(tolal— 1,904 ft.)

980 ft.)

Staubbach

Krimml

Tugela

Govarnie

Roraima

Kukenaom

Angel

South Africa

France

on Brazil-

Venezuela

980 ft.

1,250 ft.

1,350 ft.
(total — 3,110 ft.)

1,385 ft.

British Guiana-
Venezuela border
2,000 ft.

2,000 ft.

2,648 ft.
(total —
3,212 ft.)

WATERFORD

mond, Va., Raleigh, N.C., Augusta and Columbus, Ga.,
and Columbia, S.C.

A picture chart of important waterfalls of the world,
showing their location and height, will be found on the

two preceding pages. Samuel N. Dicken

Related Articles in World Book include:
Africa
Maletsunyane Falls
Stanley Falls

Asia and Australia

Gersoppa, Falls of Sutherland Falls Wollomombi Fall

Europe

Skykje Falls

Staubbach

Terni Waterfall

Tugela Falls
Victoria Falls

Gavarnie Falls
Kile Falls
Maidal Falls
Skjaeggedals

Triimmelbach

Vettisfoss

Voringfoss

North America

Niagara Falls and Niagara River
Reversing Falls of Saint John
Ribbon Falls
Takakkaw Falls
Yosemite Falls

Bridalveil Fall
Fairy Falls

Falls of Saint Anthony
Minnehaha Falls
Multnomah Falls
Nevada Falls

South America
Angel Falls Kukenaam Falls Roraima Falls

King George VI Falls Marina Falls

Unclassified
Fall Line Igua^u River

WATERFORD, IVAH In ferd (pop. 28,216; alt. 25 ft.),
is a seaport on the southeastern coast of Ireland. The
city lies on the west bank of the Suir River in County
Waterford (see Ireland [map]).

The "Old Guard" at the Battle of Waterloo made a brave
stand against overwhelming odds. The veteran French soldiers
lived up to the motto: "The Old Guard dies, but never surrenders!"

Joseph BoBgs Bealo, Modern Enterprises

Waterford has a glass industry, shoe and boot fac-
tories, flour mills, food-processing plants, an iron
foundry, and a brewery. Since the 1 700's, Waterford
cut glass has been famous throughout the world. Viking
invaders founded Waterford in the 800's. x.w. Freeman

WATERLOO, Iowa (pop. 71,755; alt. 850 ft.), is a
meat-packing and farm-machinery manufacturing cen-
ter in northeastern Iowa. It lies on the Cedar River
about 90 miles northeast of Des Moines. .Some of the
best livestock in the world are exhibited each fall at
the National Dairy Cattle Congress in Waterloo. The
first settlers, who arrived in 1845, called the place
Prairie Rapids, but the name was changed to VV'aterloo
in 1851 . Waterloo was incorporated as a city in 1868. It
has a mavor-council government. Wieuam |. Petersen

WATERLOO, BATTLE OF, fought on June 18, 1815,
was the final battle of the French military genius.
Napoleon Bonaparte. It put an end to his political am-
bitions to rule Europe. His defeat was so crushing that,
when a person suffers a disastrous reverse, we say he has
"met his Waterloo."

Napoleon Returns to France. After abdicating in
1814. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, off the
coast of Italy. He spent less than a year there before
he decided to return to rule France. He saw that the
allies at the Congress of Vienna seemed unable to settle
their differences, and he hoped to take advantage of
this split to regain power.

But the allies joined forces against Napoleon as soon
as they heard of his return to France. Each ally again
promised to supply 150.000 troops against him. Na-
poleon marched north into Belgium to meet this threat.
The Duke of Wellington commanded the allied forces
of Great Britain, Prussia, Belgium, and The Nether-
lands. Neither commander had good intelligence serv-
ices. Napoleon was not in good health at the time, and
failed to display his earlier energy and military grasp.

The Battle took place at Waterloo, a small town near
Brussels, The two armies were about equal in size.
Napoleon had about 74,000 troops, and superior cavalry
and artillery, Wellington had about 67,000 troops. He
placed them in a strong defensive position. The French
started a fierce attack against the allied lines on June 18,
Wellington's troops held firm against the French
assaults.

Napoleon might have won at Waterloo if he had
attacked earlier in the day. But he waited until noon
because of a heavy rain the night before. This delay
permitted Marshal Gcbhard von Bliicher to arrive with
his Prussian troops to reinforce Wellington. The batUe
was a draw until the arrival of Bliicher's forces. These
forces helped turn the battle against the French.

Napoleon made one last effort to win the battle. He
flung his best troops, the famous "Old Guard," against
the enemy's lines. I'hree battalions of the Guard ad-
vanced and fought bravely, but were overwhelmed.
The French then fled from a fierce bayonet counter-
attack in hopeless retreat.

Both sides lost many killed and wounded in the bat-
tle. The French sulTered about 40,000 casualties, and
the allies about 23,000. After tliis defeat. Napoleon
failed to gather a new army. He had no choice left but
to abdicate a second time. Robert b. Holtman

See also Blijcher, Gebhard L. von; Napoleon I;
Wellington, Duke of.

WATERLOO, UNIVERSITY OF, is a nondenomi-
national coeducational university in Waterloo, Ont.,
Canada. It grants degrees in liberal arts, engineering,
and science. The university was established in 1956 as a
part of the University of Western Ontario. In 1959,
it became an independent degree-granting institution.
For enrollment, see Canada (Education [table]).

WATERLOO LUTHERAN UNIVERSITY is a Ludieran
coeducational institution in Waterloo, Ont., Canada.
It grants degrees in theology and liberal arts. From
1925 to 1960, the school was affiliated with the Uni-
versity of Western Ontario as Waterloo College. For
enrollment, see Canada (Education [table]).

WATERMARK is an identifying mark pressed into
paper as it is formed by a papennaking machine.
Usually, it is the inark left by wires bent into the water-
mark pattern and attached to the dandy roll of a Four-
drinier machine (see Paper [diagram. How Paper Is
Made]). As the wire pattern conies into contact with the
layer of wet pulp, a translucent impression is made,
which can be seen when the finished paper is held in
front of a light. Watermarked paper is often used for
documents, to prevent counterfeiting. John b. Calkin

WATERMELON is a vine plant that produces large
green fruits with delicious red (sometimes yellow) pulp.
The plant is related to the pumpkin, squash, musk-
melon, and cucumber. The fruit is 93 per cent water,
and has a sweet, refreshing taste.

The fruit has a hard rind (outer shell) that is com-
pletely filled with pulp. This pulp colors as the fruit
ripens. The seeds found in the pulp may be white,
brown, or black. The vines may branch out 12 to 15
feet in all directions. The few fruits they produce are
large. Watermelons average between 20 and 35 pounds,
and they often weigh 40, 50, or even 60 pounds. They
may be round, oblong, or oval. Their color varies from
plain dark green to mottled and striped green, or al-
most white.

.Scientists have produced many varieues of water-
melons. Bantam-size watermelons that weigh only
5 to 10 pounds and giant watermelons \s'cighing over
100 pounds have been developed. Seedless watermelons
are now on the market.

The watermelon is a warm-season crop, but it grows
as far north as Canada. The seeds should not be planted
until the heat of summer has come. Watermelons grow-
best in sandy, moist soils. The vine has many blooms,
but only a few of the blossoms produce melons. The
vines are so long that the plants must be spaced 8 to
10 feet apart. For best flavor, the fruit should not
be picked until fully ripe. The fruits ripen in 80 to 90
days, depending on the variety. Most varieties are
ripe when the rind gets very hard and the melon sounds
hollow when tapped. The skin of a recently developed
midget watermelon turns golden when it is ripe.

The same insects that damage cucumbers attack
watermelons. A serious disease called anthracnose also
attacks the fruit. This disease may be controlled by
spraying with maneb and zif^eb fungicides. Several varie-
ties resist anthracnose. Farmers rotate watemielon
acreage to help control diseases.

History. The plant first grew in Africa, and spread to
southern Asia in early times. David Livingstone, the
famous Scottish explorer, regarded the watermelon as
the most interesting plant in the South African desert.

Hid Biiok ph.il..

The Charleston Gray Watermelon is one of the newest and
most popular watermelon varieties grown In the United States.

Large areas of land are almost smothered with these
melons in years of heavy rainfall. The watermelon forms
a regular part of the diet of many nations. It is still the
principal source of food and drink for the Egyptians for
several months of the year.

The people of North America have long used the
watermelon as a type of lirxury food. Watermelons were
plentiful in Massachusetts Colony as early as 1629. In

LEADING WATERMELON GROWING STATES

Tons of watermelon grown each year

Florida

386,000 (ons

Texas

247,000 tons

California

160,000 tors

Georgia

1 56,000 tons

South Carolina

108,000 tons

^ <^ <^ ^

<^ <^ ^ ^

Based on a 4-year average of government statistics.

1673, Father Marquette noted the abundance of water-
melons along the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers.
Watermelons were raised by the Indian tribes along the
Colorado River in 1 799. Today, watermelons are pro-
duced chiefly in the southern part of the L'nited States.
Scientific Classification. Watermelons belong to the
gourd family, Cucurhilaceae. They are genus Cilruihis^
species C. vulgaris. Ervin l. denisen

See also \'e(;etable (Planting Table for Vegetables).
WATERPROOF MATCH. See Match (History).

WATERPROOFING

WATERPROOFING is a way of treating cloth, leather,
wood, or other materials so that they will shed water.
Many different chemical solutions are used in water-
proofing. Nearly all of them work by forming a protec-
tive coating over the material to be waterproofed.

Materials which have tiny pores, or holes, in them are
often soaked in solutions of rubber, boiled linseed oil,
paraffin wa.x, or some other substance which is itself
waterproof. The waterproof solution fills the pores. Sili-
cone is widely used to waterproof clothing and building
materials (see Silicone).

The textile industry uses the most advanced methods
of waterproofing. The fibers of cloth may be coated
either before or after they are woven. Water-repellent
solutions sold in spray containers are available for home
use.

In 1823, Charles Macintosh of England invented a
waterproof fabric made of cloth and rubber. A raincoat
made of his protective material came to be commonly
known as a mackintosh. The Japanese have waterproofed
paper umbrellas for centuries by dipping the paper in a

simple chemical solution. Elizabeth Cheslev Baity

WATERS, ETHEL (1900- ), a Negro actress and
singer, overcame many hardships to become a leading
performer on the American
stage and screen. She sang
in the musicals Lew Leslie's
Blackbirds (\930\ As Thou-
sands Cheer ( 1 933), and Cabin
in the Sky (\9¥)).

Her great dramatic hits

were Mamba's Daughters

(1939) and Member of the

1 1 'edding ( 1 950). She starred

in the motion pictures

Cabin in the iXy (1943) and

/>;«Xj (1949). She began her

Alfredo vaientc Career as a night-club singer

Ethel Waters at the age of seventeen.

Miss Waters was born in

Chester, Pa. She wrote an autobiography, His Eye Is on

the Sparrolt' (\95]). Mary Virginia Heinlein

WATERSHED. See Divide.

WATERSPOUT is a tornado that occurs over an ocean
or lake. Its violent winds can damage ships. It is not a
column of water rising out of the sea, but a whirling
column of air and watery mist. Some sea or lake water
may be drawn up at the base of the column. But even
in ocean waterspouts, most of the water is fresh water
formed by condensation. Condensation occurs when
moist air rushes into the low pressure area at the center
of the column. Because of the low pressure, the air
expands and cools rapidly. As the air cools, water
vapor in it condenses into a liquid, forming a mist.

Related Articles in World Book include:

Ether

Heat (Radiation)

Interference

Light (The Nature of

Light)
Microwave
Polarized Light
Radio (Radio Waves)
Reflection

Refraction

Short Wave

Sound

Television (How TV Travels

Through the Air)
Tidal Wave

Ultrahigh Frequency Wave
Very High Frequency Wave
Vibration

121

U.S. Navy

A United States Navy WAVE in the white service dress uniform
worn by women in the regulor navy and the navy reserve in
warm weather. In cold weather, WAVES wear blue uniforms.

United States Navy WAVES must complete u troining program
before being assigned to technical or clerical positions in the
United States or at naval bases in foreign countries.

WAVES is the popular name for women in the United
States Nav>'. Most women in the regxilar nav>' and the
navy reserve do not form a separate organization, or
corps. But navy nurses belong to a separate group, the
Navy Nurse Corps. The term VVAX'ES comes from the
first letters of the official nav\' recruiting expression,
"Women Accepted for \olunteer Emergency Service,"
used during World War II.

Enlisted women receive a 10-week recruit training
at Camp Paul, Naval Training Center, Great Lakes, 111.
After basic training, many WAVES have additional
advanced training. Others receive on-the-job instruction
at their duty posts. The period of enlistment for WAXES
is three, four, or six years.

WAVES are subject to the same regulations and re-
quirements for advancement as men. They enjoy the
same benefits and privileges. Enlisted \\'A\'ES serve in
23 of the navy's 65 general service ratings, including
medical and aviation work. WA\'E officers are com-
missioned in the line and in such staff corps as the
medical corps and the supply corps. Line officers are
assigned to duty in such fields as logistics, communi-
cations, intelligence, and personnel administration.

The law prohibits WAVES from serving on aircraft
engaged in combat missions. They are not allowed to
serve on board navs' ships, except hospital ships and
naval transports that carry dependents of naval per-
sonnel.

Women first served in the nav\- in World War I.
The Civil Service Commission declared that women
were eligible for enlistment in the L'nited States Navy
Reserve in 1917. More than 1 1 ,000 women served in the

navy reserve after the L^nited States entered World War
I. They performed various duties to release enlisted men
for active duty at sea. All were released from active duty
before the end of 1919.

Congress authorized the establishment of the Wom-
en's Reserve of the L^nited States Naval Reserve in
1942. This gave volunteer women the opportunity to
contribute their services during World War II, and
release men for active duty. Mildred H. McAfee served
as the first director of the WA\'ES (see McAfee,
Mildred Helen).

At the end of World War II, the WAVES had 86,000
enlisted women and officers. The WA\'ES became a
permanent part of the regular navy and the naval re-
serve in 1 948. The regular navy has about 5,500 WAN'ES
on active duty. The naval reserve has about 5,000
VVA\'ES on inactive duty, cnticaiiy reviewed by the w.^ves

WAX is a hard, brittle, fatty substance obtained
from animal, vegetable, and mineral sources. Nature
protects most plants, flowers, and fruits with a shield of
wax. The layer of wax holds in their supply of moisture
and prevents damage to young plants from the sun's
hot rays. Wax is not easily affected by oxygen, and
moisture does not destroy its protective value. These
properties make wax very useful to man. We have bor-
rowed nature's use of the substance to protect and
beautify many man-made objects. As early as the 1 500's,
the French protected their beautiful parquetry- floors
with wax. These floors remained unscratched for hun-
dreds of years.

Today, there are many kinds of wax and many uses
for them. Most wax is a blend of animal, mineral, and

122

vegetable waxes. Most commercial waxes are made from
btrswax, palm icax, or paraffin wax. Bees manufacture
beeswax while building their cells. Palm wax coats the
leaves of certain palms, such as the carnauba palm in
Brazil. Paraffin wax is distilled from petroleum. The
blended waxes, which are solid in their natural state,
arc mixed into a liquid, called the vehicle, to make
them easy to apply. The vehicle is usually turpentine
or some similar stibstance which evaporates in air. The
surface which is to be waxed is first thoroughly cleaned
and dried. Then the wax, either in paste or liquid form,
is applied evenly. The vehicle evaporates, leaving a
hard coating. W'hen the coating is polished, it has a
beautiful, mellow sheen. Paste wax, which leaves a
hard coating, is used to polish furniture. Liquid wax,
which is easier to apply, is commonly used for Hoors.

Paraffin tvax is also used to form an airtight covering
on jars of fruit or vegetables and so protect them from
harmful bacteria in the air. Many official documents
bear a wax seal.

Spermaceti, a wa.\ which comes from the oil of the
sperm whale, is used in toilet creams. Wool wax, from
the oil glands of the sheep, is used as a dressing for
leather goods. Bayberry candles are made from the wa.x
which covers the berries of the candleberry or wax

myTtle. George R. Greenbank

Related Articles in World Book include:
Bayberry Carnauba Wax Sealing Wax

Beeswax Paraffin Spermaceti

Candleberry Polish

WAX MYRTLE is a large evergreen shrub or small tree
found along the eastern coast of the United States, and
as far \vest as Texas. It grows as high as 40 feet, and has
gray flowers. The two- to three-inch leaves are alternate
along the branches. The wax myrtle is grown as an or-
namental shrub and does best in damp soil.

Scientific Classification. Wax myrtles belong to the
sweet gale family, Myncaceae. They arc classified as genus
Myrica, species M. cerijera. willi.\m m. harlow

WAXBERRY. See Candleberry.

WAXWING is a silky-feathered, grayish-brown bird
larger than a sparrow, with a conspicuous crest or top-
knot. It has a band of yellow across the end of its tail,
and red, waxlike drops on its wing feathers.

The cedar waxu'ing is the best known of these birds. It
lives in most parts of North America, as far north as
central Canada and Labrador. These birds eat berries
and fruits, and insects. They build bulky nests, usually
in a fruit or shade tree. Many cedar waxwings are found
on the islands of Lake .Superior and aroimd the lakes of
Ontario and northern Minnesota in the summer. The
birds cannot sing, but are able to utter a few high hissing
notes. The female lays three to five eggs which are a pale
bluish or purplish gray, speckled with black, brown, or
purple.

The Bohemian waxwing is a slightly larger bird. It has
yellow marks on its wings and reddish-brown undertail
feathers. It lives in the northern latitudes of the world.
In the winter it appears in the northwestern and central
northern United States and northern Europe.

The Siberian waxwing lives in southeastern Siberia and
Japan.

Scientific Classification. Waxwings belong to the family
Bombycillidae. The cedar waxwing is genus Bomhycilh,
species B. cedrorum; the Bohemian, B. garrula, and the

The Cedar Waxwing gets its name from the waxlike tips on its
wing feathers. This grayish-brown bird lives throughout North
America. It cannot sing, but it utters a high, hissing note.

Siberian, H. japonica. Leonard w. wing

See also Bird (color pictures, Birds' Eggs, Other Bird
Favorites).

WAYBILL. See Bill of Lading.

WAYLAND BAPTIST COLLEGE. See Unix-ersities
AND Colleges (table),

WAYLAND THE SMITH is a hero of the old Germanic
mythology. His tragic story is told in German, English,
and Scandinavian sources. Wayland, according to the
Poetic Edda, was a great craftsman and artist (sec Edda).
A cruel king named Nidud captured him. Wayland
had been married for nine years to a Valkyrie (woman
warrior) who had left him (see Valkyrie). While he
waited for her return, he made a priceless treasure of
gold rings. But Nidud stole Wayland's treasure and
forced the smith to work for him. The king made Way-
land lame to prevent his escape. Wayland avenged him-
self by killing the king's sons. He then sent the king or-
naments made from Nidud's sons' skulls, eyes, and
teeth. He escaped in a feather dress he had made, after
he told the king what he had done. Einar Haugen

WAYNE, ANTHONY (1745-1796), was an American
officer in the Re\olutionaiy War. He became known as
"Mad Anthony"' Wayne because of his reckless cour-
age. He was the hero of the recapture of Stony Point,
N.Y., a British post on the Hudson River, in 1779.
Wayne commanded the attack, which was considered
one of the most daring of the war.

He was born on Jan. 1, 1745, in Chester County,
Pennsylvania. He studied at an academy in Philadel-
phia where he qualified as a surveyor. A Philadelphia
land company sent him to Nova Scotia in 1765 to
supervise the surveying and settlement of land. He re-
turned to Pennsylvania and served in the colonial as-
sembly. When the war tegan in 1775. he raised a

123

Brown Bros.

"Mad Anthony" Wayne Cheered On His Men as they
stormed the walls of Stony Point, held by British Redcoats.

regiment for the Canadian campaign, and later served
in the garrison at Ticonderoga. In 1777, Wayne became
a brigadier general and joined Washington's army to
command the Pennsylvania line. He led a division at
Brandywine, commanded the right wing at German-
town, and spent the winter with Washington at \'alley
Forge. He led the advance attack at Monmouth the
next year. In 1781, Wayne served with the Marquis de
Lafayette against General Cornwallis, and took part in
the siege of Yorktown. Cornwallis' surrender helped
bring the Revolutionary War to an end.

In 1783, Wayne became a brevet major general, but
he retired the same year. He represented Georgia in
Congress in 1791, but the seat was declared vacant be-
cause of election irregularities. He returned to the army
in 1791 as a major general and commander in chief. He
fought against the Indians in Ohio in 1794, defeating
them at Fallen Timbers. Wayne made a treaty with the
Indians in 1795 which secured a great tract of land for
the United States. Wayne died from gout at Presque
Isle (now Erie, Pa.) the next year. John r. Alden

WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY is a coeducational
school in Detroit. Once a municipal school, it became
a state university in 1956. Wayne has colleges and
schools of liberal arts, education, engineering, medicine,
pharmacy, law, business administration, and social work,
and a graduate school. Courees lead to bachelor's,
master's, and doctor's degrees. The colleges of medicine
and education trace their beginnings to 1 868. The school
was organized as Wayne University in 1933. Its name
became Wayne .State University in 1956. .School colors
ar-e hunter green and gold. The athletic teams are called
theTartars.The best-known songs are'-Hymn to Wayne"
and "Wayne University." For enrollment, see Univer-
sities AND Colleges (table). Frank x. tuohey
WAYNESBURG COLLEGE is a coeducational liberal
arts school at Waynesburg, Pa. It is under Presbyterian
conu-ol. Courses lead to A.B., B.S., B.S. in Business
Administration, and B.Ed, degrees. The students assist
nearby churches with their religious, educational, and
recreational activities. Waynesburg has a fine collection
of mineralogical, geological, and Indian archaeological
specimens. Waynesburg College was chartered in 1850.
For enrollment, see Universities (table). Paul-r. Stewart

WAYS AND MEANS COMMITTEE is a powerful
committee of the United States House of Representa-
tives. It has jurisdiction over taxation and tariflf legis-
lation and other important financial matters.

WAYSIDE INN is the name of the Longfellow shrine
and colonial museum near Sudbury, Mass. It was built
in 1686 and was first named the Red Horse Inn. Many
distinguished guests, such as George Washington and
the Marquis de Lafayette, stopped there. Henry Wads-
worth Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn, an imagi-
nary account of the tales told by the inn's fireside, made
the place famous. Henry Ford bought the building in
1923 and partly restored it. Except for a period between
i860 and 1896, the Wayside Inn served guests con-
tinuously from the time of its beginning until 1955,
when it was badly damaged by fire.

W.C.T.U. See Woman's Christian Temperance
LInion.

WEA INDIANS. See Miami Indians.

WEAKFISH, or SQUETEAGUE, SKWEE teeg, is a salt-
water food fish of the croaker family. Its name comes
from the fact that its mouth is tender and easily torn.
The fish reaches a length of one foot to two feet or more.
Although sea trout is one of its common names, it is not
even closely related to the trout. The squeteague lives
along the eastern and Gulf coasts of the United States
horn Massachusetts to Texas. The four kinds are the
common squeteague, the spotted squeteague, the silver sque-
teague. and the sand squeteague. Weakfish usually weigh
less than 15 pounds, but they sometimes weigh up to
30 pounds.

Scientific Classificaiion. Squeteagues, or sea trout, are
in tiro family Oiolilhulae. The common squeteague is clas-
sified as genus Cynoscion, species recalls, and the silver as
C. nolhus. The spotted squeteague is genus Enscion, species
nebulosus. <^arl l. hubbs

See also Fishing (table, GameT'ishing World Records).

WEALTH is a term referring to material economic
goods. Possession of goods is one means of sadsfying
human needs and wants. There are two chief kinds of
goods— /ree and economic. Free goods, such as air and
sunshine, exist in abundance and are readily available
to everyone. Economic goods are those that are scarce
or difficult to obtain, and people are willing to pay for
them.

There are two principal kinds of economic goods—
consumer goods and capital goods. Capital goods are de-
scribed in The World Book in the article Capital.
Consumer goods include durable goods, such as auto-
mobiles, books, and household furnishings, as well as
less durable and quickly perishable goods, such as
clothing and food.

Wealth (economic goods) has three qualities. lo be
wealth, an article mus't have utility, that is, the power to
satisfy wants. It must also be limited in amount. And it
must be transferable, or material and capable of being

possessed.

The production, evaluation, distribution, and con-
sumption of wealth make up the primary subject matter
of the science of economics. Leonard c. R. Lanoer

Related Articles in World Book include:
Consumption Money Savings

C.redit Price Supply and Demand

Economics Profit Value

Interest Rent

124

WEAPON, WEHP im. Weapons have played an im-
portant part in the history of man. Without weapons
man could not have conquered vast areas of wilderness
or defended his home and family from enemies. But
weapons also have played a tragic part in the histoiy of
civilization. Wars have been made more and more hor-
rible by the development of new weapons which can
kill more and more people, and destroy more of the
worthwhile things man has built in time of peace.
Today, nuclear power has made possible weapons so
destructive that many persons feel man no longer has
positive defenses against his own power to destroy.
The continued use of such weapons could destroy civ-
ilization, and man is building moral as well as material
defenses against them.

Weapons may be divided roughly into five classes:
(1) crushing, piercing, or cutting weapons; (2) explosive
weapons; (3) chemical weapons; (4) bacteriological
weapons; and (5) nuclear weapons.

Clmshing, piercing, and cutting weapons were among
the earliest devised by man. The first weapons probably
were rocks which early men used to kill prehistoric
animals. Piercing weapons progressed from the early
flint knives to the modern bayonet.

Explosive weapons developed in the 1300's, when
gunpowder was used in hand guns and cannons. The
ancient Greeks, who developed Greek fire, first used
chemical weapons. Chemical weapons such as the
flame thrower became important in modern warfare.
Bacteriological weapons, using germs to spread disease
among militaiy and civilian groups, have been used
only rarely in modern warfare.

Nuclear weapons are the greatest threat to mankind,
because their destaictive power is so enormous. By the
1960's, nuclear weapons could be launched by aircraft,
submarines, and ballistic missiles. John d. Bilunosley

Related Articles in World Book include:

Atomic Bomb

Bomb

BuUet

Cartridge

Cordite

Depth Charge

Detonator

Forcite

Artillery

Bazooka

Blunderbuss

Cannon

Carbine

Firearm

Bayonet

Blowgun

Boomerang

Bowie Knife

Catapult

Ammunition

Archery

Arrowhead

Arsenal

Ballistics

Explosives
Fragmentation
Fuse
Grenade
Guncotton
Gunpowder
Hydrogen Bomb
Mine, Military

Firearms
Flintlock
Garand Rifle
Gun

Harquebus
Howitzer
Machine Gun

Other Weapons

Crossbow

Dagger

Flame Thrower

Guided Missile

Knife

Machete

Unclassified

Biological
Warfare
Chemical Warfare
Disarmament
Fire Control

Nitroglycerin

PETN

Plastic Bomb

RDX

Shrapnel

TNT

Torpedo

Mortar

Musket

Pistol

Revolver

Rifle

Shotgun

Rocket

Sling

Spear

Sword

Tomahawk

Ulu

Greek Fire
Magazine
Ordnance
Powder Horn
Shot Tower

WEASEL

WEARE, MESHECH. See New Hampshire (History).

WEASEL, ]\'EE zh is a small furry animal whose
white winter coat gives us the fur called ermine. Any
weasel in its winter coat may be called an ermine, but
some do not have such fine fur as others. Some weasels
that live in the southern part of the United States do
not turn white in winter. The weasel family also includes
martens, badgers, skunks, and otters.

Weasels belong to the carnivorous (flesh-eating) ani-
mal group. They have keen sight and smell, and are
good hunters. Weasels sometimes kill farm poultry. But
they can also be useful when they destroy troublesome
pests. Weasels have a strong, unpleasant odor. These
slim animals move swiftly.

The long-tailed weasel is the best-known kind in North
America. It has a white belly and dark-brown back,
with a black tip on its tail. The female of this weasel is
about 1 3 inches long. The male long-tailed weasel grows
about 16 inches long.

The short-tailed weasel is smaller than the long-tailed
weasel. The male averages 1 1 inches in length and the
female averages 9 inches. The tail is about 2 inches
long. The short-tailed weasel produces most of North
America's ermine. It lives in many parts of the United
.States and Canada.

The least weasel also lives in North America. It is the
smallest known carnivorous animal. The male is 8
inches long and the female is 6 inches long.

Scientific Classification. Weasels belong to the family
Mustelidae. The long-tailed weasel is genus Alustela, species
M. frenata. The short-tailed weasel is M. erminea, and the
least weasel is M, rixosa. Harold e. Anthony

Related Articles in World Book include:
Badger Marten Polecat

Ermine
Ferret

Mink
Otter

Ratel
Sable

.Skunk
Tayra
Wolverine

The Dwarf Plains Weasel, fop, is changing from its white
ermine winter coat to its dari<er summer fur. The weasel, boftom,
has completed changing from winter to summer colors.

Ernest P. Walker

WEATHER includes all the daily changes in tempera-
ture, wind, moisture, and air pressure. It affects every-
one. Today's weather may make us feel hot or cold.
We may get soaking wet in a sudden shower, or have to
struggle through deep snow. Bright sunshine may make
the day cheerful and happy. Dark, dull clouds may
make us sad and unhappy. Too much rain can cause
floods. Too little rain may kill farm crops.

We cannot change the weather very much at present,
but we can adjust ourselves to it. We put on raincoats
when it rains, and boots when it snows. We heat our
homes in cold weather and cool them in hot weather.
Weather plays an important part in many human
activities. Farmers need good weather so that their crops
will grow and ripen. Storms or sudden frosts can destroy
valuable crops. This raises the prices we pay for food at
our neighborhood stores. Weather even affects sales in
department stores. Fewer persons shop in rainy or snowy
weather. Transportation and communication also suffer
in bad weather. Snow may make trains late. Fog often
prevents airplanes from taking off. Icy highways slow
automobile and truck traffic. Storms can break tele-
phone and electric-power lines. Ships at sea often have
to change their courses to avoid bad weather. In war-
time, weather plays an important part in planning
military operations. During World War II, a storm over
the English Channel delayed the Allied invasion of
France for a day.

Weather forecasting helps us fit our plans to future
weather. We can hear weather forecasts on the radio,

"Will If Snow Tomorrow?" and other questions about weather
conditions are answered in the weather reports on radio and tele-
vision and in newspapers. TV forecasters show simplified versions
of the complex weather maps prepared by the Weather Bureau.

watch them on television, and read them in the news-
paper. Meteorologists, the scientists who study weather,
gather information about weather conditions and pre-
dict what the weather will be tomorrow, next week, or
even next month. The weatherman's forecasts may save
thousands of lives and millions of dollars in property.
Forecasters warn fruitgrowers of early frosts and give
them time to set out smudge pots. Ranchers who learn
of storms in advance have a chance to shelter their
cattle. Weathermen track destructive hurricanes and
tell people when to expect floods. They also help fam-
ilies plan picnics, vacations, and other activities.

Weather is not the same as climate. Climate is a sum-
mary of weather conditions in a certain region for a
period of many years. Climate is based on average tem-
peratures, average amounts of rain and snow, and aver-
ages of sunshine, wind, and humidity. See Climate.

Weather Forecasting

Weather forecasts depend on observations made at
weather stations throughout the world. Forecasters
analyze the information and base their predictions on
the patterns that highs, lows, and other weather ele-
ments usually follow. But weather systems do not always
act in the same way, and no two weather situations are

126

TEMPERATURE

Wide World; Yugoslav Info. Center; Gendreau

exactly alike. Weather processes are much too com-
plicated, too rapidly changing, and too different in
places near each other for perfect forecasting. A forecast
for a short time ahead may be highly accurate. But for
longer and longer times ahead, the forecast is less and
less accurate. A forecast made for a month ahead may
be little more than a guess.

Observations. A weatherman can forecast future
weather only if he knows present and past conditions.
But if a forecaster knows the conditions only for his o\vn
area, he cannot forecast weather for more than a few
hours ahead. For a longer forecast, he must know the
present and recent weather over a much larger region.
Weather conditions affecting the United States and
Canada as yqu read this article began a week ago over
the oceans and other countries. Generally, the farther
ahead a forecaster predicts weather, the larger the area
for which he must know the present weather.

Observers record the weather conditions at weather
stations in alj parts of the United States. They report
air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and
direction, cloud forms, amounts of rain and snow, and
such obstiTJCtions to visibility as fog, haze, and smoke.
Airplane pilots report the weather by radio. Radar
operators observe and report clouds and precipitation
more than 200 miles away (see Rad.\r [AVeather]).
Crew members on ships at sea report the weather con-
ditions in various parts of the ocean. All these observers
code their information in condensed form and transmit
it by radio and teletype to United States Weather

WEATHER

Bureau forecast centers throughout the country. The
Weather Bureau exchanges weather reports with the
Canadian Meteorological Sei-vice. The bureau also
receives about 2,500 weather reports every day from
other countries. It sends out about the same number of
reports on American weather conditions. All weather
observations are transmitted to the National Weather
Analysis Center near Washington, D.C. See Weather
Bureau, United States.

Analysis. As weather information pours into the
analysis center, experts called plotters decode the mes-
sages. They record the observations from each weather
observer on maps, using numbers and symbols. Analysts
draw isobars, or lines connecting places that have the
same air pressure. Then they draw isotherms, or lines
connecting places with the same temperature. Other
lines show the locations of cold and warm fronts between
air masses. These analyzed maps are copied and sent
over facsimile networks (see Facsimile). Facsimile re-
corders reproduce the maps at hundreds of weather
stations throughout the United States.

Forecast centers that receive weather obsei-vations by
teletype also plot weather maps. But smaller Weather
Bureau offices do not. They prepare their forecasts from
the maps sent out by the analysis center.

In order to predict the weather, a forecaster first
studies the analyzed maps. Like blueprints, these maps
give him a three-dimensional picture of the weather
systems. He knows how these systems — highs, lows, air
masses, and fronts — normally develop and move. He
can quickly predict what to expect. But weather systems
do not always behave normally. So the forecaster com-
pares the new maps with earlier ones. He learns how
the motion and development of the systems differ from
their normal behavior. If past maps show that the
present weather system is not moving normally, the
forecaster must determine whether it probably will con-

WEATHER TERMS

Air Mass is a large body of air that has about the same
weather conditions throughout it. Air masses may be
warm or cold, dry or humid.

Front is a long, narrow band of changing weather
between two kinds of air masses.

High, or Anticyclone, is a large area of high pressure.
In the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow clockwise in
a high. They blow counterclockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Humidity is the amount of moisture, or water vapor,
in the air.

low, or Cyclone, is a large area of low pressure.
Winds in a low rotate counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere. They rotate clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Precipitation is water droplets or ice crystals that fall
to earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

Pressure is tlie force produced by the weight of air
pressing down on the earth.

Temperature measures the degree of heat in the air.

Tornado is the smallest, most violent kind of destructive
storm. The dark, funnel-shaped cloud that extends to the
ground is usually only about 300 yards across. Its twist-
ing winds may whirl 300 miles an hour.

Wind is the movement of masses of air. Winds are
named by the direction from which they blow. For
example, a south wind blows from south to north.

127

It*

I ??•*"

WEATHER FORECASTING

Making accurate weather reports requires the work of many dif-
ferent people. The forecaster needs accurate observations of the
past and present weather conditions in many places on earth.

First Federal Savings of Chicago

linue to move in the same way, or will begin to move
in a more nearly normal manner.

Finally, the forecaster examines the details of the
maps. He notices little things that may seem unimpor-
tant, such as a slight increase of cloudiness or a small
change in the shape of a front. These details may
indicate important trends, such as increasing precipita-
tion or a new area of falling pressure.

Now the forecaster draws a number of prognostic
charts that show his predictions of the weather. The
prognostic charts prepared in the analysis center are
transmitted immediately by facsimile to the local
Weather Bureau offices. Local weathermen interpret
these maps for their areas. Then they send local fore-
casts to newspapers and radio and television stations.
The electronic computer has taken some of the bur-
den of decision from the forecaster. Since May, 1955,
computers have been used to help make some of the
weather forecasts. They can predict certain basic ele-
ments of future weather. Computers can even analyze
weather maps. As meteorologists learn more about the
patterns of weather and their variations, computers can
make even better forecasts.

Kinds of Forecasts. Weathermen use different meth-
ods to make forecasts for various lengths of time. The
differences consist mainly in the kind of maps used and
the details given in the forecasts.

Short-Range Forecasts (up to one or two days ahead)
are based mainly on daily weather charts. Local fore-
casters in Weather Bureau offices throughout the United
States prepare and distribute them to the public. They
continually revise them as they get new information.
Extended Forecasts are made by the Weather Bureau's
long-range forecast center in Washington. These fore-
casts cover periods of 5 days and 30 days. Forecasters
prepare 5-day forecasts based on charts showing the
average conditions over a 5-day period. They prepare
new 5-dav forecasts three times every week. Twice each

OMAHA, NEB.

'tj^-

'.-^

\ ,.■

Observers at weather stations record information about weather
conditions in their areas. They code the information and flash it by
teletype to Weather Bureau offices throughout the United States.

month, on about the 1st and the 15th, the forecast
center releases 30-day forecasts giving the average
weather conditions expected for the next 30 days. They
base these forecasts on 30-day average charts. The longer
the period covered by the forecasts, the fewer details
they include. A forecaster may predict rain for tomorrow
afternoon, but he will be less certain about the time
rain may fall five days from now. A 30-day forecast pre-
dicts whether the amount of rainfall over the whole
period will be above or below normal.

The Story of a Storm

One of the important services performed by weather
forecasters is tracking major storms and predicting
where they will strike. Here is the story of the birth, life,
and death of a typical storm that demonstrates how
weather forecasters work.

Birth of a Storm. A small area of thunderstorms, the
first sign that a major storm is forming, appears on a
September day over the Adantic Ocean west of the
Cape Verde Islands. During the next two or three days,
the area of thunderstorms increases and the air pressure
slowly falls. Then a definite center of low pressure forms,
and winds begin to whid around it. A tropical cyclone
is born. While winds carry the new storm westward, it
grows in size and strength.

Tracl<ing a Storm. No one has yet seen the storm.
But forecasters in the Weather Bureau's Hurricane
Warning Service at Miami, Fla., become suspicious.
Their charts show a trough (low-pressure area) in the
middle of the tropical Atlantic. They know hurricanes
often '"hide" in such troughs. They keep close watch,
hoping a ship in the area will radio a weather report.
Fortunately, a weather satellite passing over the area
transmits a picture showing the spiral cloud bands of
a hurricane. Finally, a ship's observer reports unusu-
ally low air pressure, strong winds, and squalls. The
forecasters feel sure that the storm is a hurricane. They

128

Weather Bureau Offices receive reports sent in
by observers over teletype circuits. Meteorologists
read the coded reports and decode the messages.

consult the year's list of names, and christen it "Hannah."
Each vear, weathermen make up an alphabetical list
of girls' names, which they give to hurricanes as the\-
appear. The letter "H" for '"Hannah" tells that this is
the eighth hurricane of the year.

United States Air Force and Naw pilots, called
hurricane hunters, fly out to examine the storm and track
its position. They look at the ocean waves, the spiral
bands of clouds, and the central eye. The eye is a
region of relative calm and nearly clear skies in the
center of the storm. It is about 20 miles in diameter. The
hurricane hunters drop radiosondes into the storm. Radio-
sondes are instruments carried by balloons or dropped
from planes by dropsondes, or parachutes. The instm-
ments measure temperature, air pressure, and humidil\-.
The ]3ilots estiinate the strength of the winds, and report
iheir observations to the hurricane-waming center.

Forecasters analyze the reports from the hurricane
hunters, and learn that Hannah's center is about 800
miles east of Puerto Rico. The storm is moving westward
at 15 miles an hour. Its winds are rotating 100 miles an
hour around the calm eye. If the hurricane stays on its
course, it will reach Puerto Rico in two days. The fore-
casters issue a hurricane watch announcement to the
islanders. This announcement tells them that a hurri-
cane is near and that they should be ready to protect
themselves if a hurricane warning is issued.

During the next two days, Hannah's coiu-se veers
toward the west-northwest, so Puerto Rico does not
receive the worst part of the storm. Now the forecasters
must predict if and when Hannah will strike the main-
land of the United States.

The storm is beginning to follow the typical curving
path toward north and then toward northeast. It might
cross the coast anywhere from Florida northward. Or it
could curve far to the northeast and iniss the mainland
entirelw The forecasters study their maps of surface and
upper air. They decide that air movement will steer

Plotters record the information from eoch weather station on a
large map. They draw stofion models, or groups of numbers and
symbols that represent weather information for each station.

The Station Model for Omaha, Neb., shows wind, temper-
ature, pressure, dev^ point, and cloud conditions for that city.

Wind Speed and Direction-
north at 1 5 to 20 miles an hour.

i
I Barometric Pressure reduced

Temperature-49°F. \- ,^ ^^^ level- 1025.4 millibars.

OMAHA, NEB

Dew Point — 36°F.

Pressure Change during the
lost three hours — up 6 1 milli-
bars by rising fairly steadily.

Cloud Cover — about one fourth
of the sky covered by clouds.

Forecasters analyze the completed map. They note the main
weather systems and their positions. They refer to older mops to
see how the systems are moving. Then they make their forecasts.

01 (^

I0!0

1024

A Weather Map pictures weather conditions in various parts of
the country. This map of a mid-April day shows cloudy weather in
the East, rain in the Middle West, and clear skies in the Southwest.

Weather Map Prepared by Mtirray & Trettel, Consulting Meteorologists

The squall line centers on on area that has gusty winds and fre-
quent rain. Wavy isobars connect places that have the same air
pressure, as indicated by the numbers on the lines.

WEATHER MAP SYMBOLS

Cold Front Warm Front

Stationary Front

Squall Line

Isobar

Precipitation

Cloud Cover is the portion O
of the sky covered by clouds. Clear

One Quarter

One Half

Three Quarters

•

Completely Overcast

Wind. The "feathers" show speed in mph. The
end of the arrow with the "feathers" points
in the direction from which the wind is blowing.

Calm

26-31 32-37 38-43 44-49

o — ^

50-54

55-60

61-66

67-71

o — n

21-25
72-77

t.-S>

THE EFFECT OF AIR PRESSURE ON THE WEATHER

1024

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TULSA, OK LA.

996 lOOD ,(j04
CHICAGO, ILL.

1006

The Ocean of Air that presses down on the earth affects the
weather. Air pressure varies from place to place. A high, or area
of high pressure, resembles a mountain of air. It rises above sur-
rounding air masses. It is heavier than the air around it. Winds in
a high spiral ouiward ond downward, causing clouds to evap-

orate. Highs usually bring fair weather. A low, or area of low
pressure, resembles a valley. It weighs less than surrounding air
mosses. Winds in a low spiral inward, and force the air In the
center to rise. As the air rises, it cools, and may condense to form
clouds, fog, or rain. Lows often bring wet, stormy weather.

COLD FRONT

■*" CUMULONIMBUS ,j«

CIRRUS

VARM AIR

A Cold Front forms when a cold air mass forces its
way underneath a warmer air mass, and pushes the
worm air upward. As the front moves along in the

WARM FRONT

WARM AIR

NIMBOSTRATUS

direction shown by the blacl< arrows, cold air replaces
warmer air. A narrow zone of clouds forms at the
front, and violent rainstorms often rage along if.

CIRRUS

Cs^fngm CI Rind MCrvam & Co

A Warm Front forms when a mass of warm air over-
takes, and moves on top of, a mass of colder air.
Warm air replaces the colder air as the front moves

in the direction shown by the black arrows. Clouds,
steady rain or snow, and sometimes thunderstorms,
form within a fairly wide zone ahead of a warm front.

U.S. Weather Bureau

Funnel-Shaped Cloud of a tornado contains winds
that whirl about its center at over 300 miles per hour.

HURRICANE

Tornadoes usually form along a cold front. As the front moves, some cold
air may jut forward from the front and rise above the warm, moist air. The
cold air aloft and the warm air combine to form a whirling tornado funnel.

U.S. Weather Bureau

Destructive Power of a Hurricane is increased
by huge waves that lash coastal areas as it passes.

A Hurricane has high winds that whirl around a low-pressure center. Hurri-
canes that affect the United States start in the tropical parts of the North
Atlantic Ocean. They usually travel northward in a curving path.

WEATHER

Hannah toward the coast of North Carolina. But they
cannot be sure, so they issue a hurricane watch for the
coast from Florida to Virginia.

Meanwhile, hurricane hunters make regular flights
into the storm to record its position, course, and inten-
sity. They find that it is beginning to move northwest
at 20 miles an hour. The next day, its center is about
500 miles south of Cape Hatteras and it is moving
directly north at 22 miles an hour. The forecasters warn
residents along the coast from South Carolina to Dela-
ware to protect themselves and their property. They tell
the people to move inland, away from the low coastal
areas where the storm's winds will build up a high tide.
Shortly before the storm hits the coast, they issue hurri-
cane warnings to areas in Hannah's path.

Effects of a Storm. Finally, hurricane Hannah rips
into the coastal area. It uproots trees and telephone
poles, leaving many towns without light or communica-
tion. The 1 00-mile-an-hour winds tear the roofs off
houses and break windows left uncovered by careless
homeowners. The rains that accompany the hurricane
bring floods to small rivers and creeks. The storm raises
the tide so that it carries some boats inland and dumps
them on dry land. The storm tide drowns a number of
coastal dwellers who have not left their homes for
higher land. The water ruins the homes and belongings
of many other families.

Leaving behind wreckage, water, and fallen trees,
the storm curves to the northeast. It moves into tlie busy
shipping lanes of the North Atlantic. In a final burst of
fury, Hannah tosses up waves as high as 50 feet, produc-
ing seasickness and injuries for passengers on battered
ships. Then the storm moves farther northeastward, los-
ing its identity in an area of low pressure near Iceland.

What Makes Up Weather?

Weather changes constantly. One day may be dry
and sunny, and the next day cloudy and rainy. The
main elements that make up the weather are: (1) tem-
perature, (2) wind, (3) moisture, and (4) air pressure.

Temperature afTects the weather more than anything
else. The sun sends huge amounts of energy into space.
Some of this energy, or sunshine, reaches the earth. The
atmosphere, the clouds, and the surface of the earth
reflect some of it back into space. The rest is absorbed
by the atmosphere and earth and changed into heat.
This heat warms the earth and the atmosphere.

The atmosphere traps sunshine much as a greenhouse
does. Sunshine is radiation in the form of short waves.
Short waves pass easily through the glass panes of a
greenhouse. Plants in the greenhouse absorb some of
the sunshine and change it into heat. The plants then
radiate the heat in the form of long waves. Long waves
cannot pass easily through the glass panes, so they
remain in the greenhouse and keep it warm. The atmos-
phere acts as do the glass panes in the greenhouse. It lets
in short-wave sunshine, but traps the long heat waves.
See Radiation (How Radiation Affects Life on Earth).

Thermometers measure the temperature of the air.
To find the correct air temperature, place a thermometer
in a shady spot. A thermometer placed in the sun will
show a higher temperature than the actual temperature
of the air. Direct sun heats the glass and mercury -in the

132

thermometer more than it heats the air. See Tempera-
ture; Thermometer.

Wind is the movement of air over the surface of the
earth. Winds rank as an important factor in weather
conditions. A soft breeze may make a summer day more
pleasant. A violent windstorm may bring injuries and
destruction to people and property in its path. Wind is
also important because it moves the other elements of
weather from one place to another. A wind from the
north may bring low temperatures. A sea breeze carries
cool, moist air over the land. Weather vanes and ane-
mometers supply accurate information on the direction
and speed of the wind. These devices usually record the
information automatically. See Wind.

Weather vanes are instruments that indicate the direc-
tion of the wind. Winds receive their names from the
direction /roOT which they blow. The arrow on a weather
vane points to the direction from which the wind is
blowing. See Weather Vane.

Meteorologists use anemometers to find the speed of
the wind. An anemometer has long spokes with cups
attached to them. The wind makes the cups whirl
around. Meteorologists can calculate wind speed from
the speed at which the cups move. In the United States,
wind speed is stated in miles per hour, or in knots (one
knot equals 1.15 miles per hour). See Anemometer.

Moisture affects the weather in several ways. It may
fall to earth as one of the forms of precipitation — rain,
snow, hail, or sleet. Or it may remain in the atmosphere
as humidity, or water vapor. Water vapor in the atmos-
phere may condense to form tiny droplets of water or
ice crystals that do not fall to earth. If the droplets or
crystals condense high above the earth, they form clouds.
If they are near the surface of the earth, they form fog.
See Cloud; Fog; Rain; Snow.

Meteorologists use several kinds of hygrometers to
measure the amount of water vapor in the air. One kind,
called a psychrometer, consists of two thermometers set
on a support so they can be whirled in the air. The
bulb of one thermometer is covered with a wet cloth.
It is called a wet-bulb thermometer. The other is a dry-
bulb thermometer. When the two are whirled in the air
for a few minutes, water evaporates from the wet cloth
and cools the wet-bulb thermometer. The amount of
evaporation depends on the amount of moisture in the
air. In dry air, more evaporation takes place. The diflfer-
ence between the temperatures of the two thermometers
measures moisture in the air. Humidity is calculated
from this difference. See Humidity; Hygrometer.

Meteorologists use a cylindrical instrument called a
raingauge to measure rainfall. The inches of rainfall can
be calculated by measuring the amount that drops into
a long, narrow tube inside the gauge. Snowfall may also
be measured with a rain gauge. Snow that falls into the
tube may be melted and measured as rain. Or it may be
weighed. Then meteorologists calculate the number of
inches of melted snow. Some snow is heavier than other
snow. A 6-inch layer of moist snow or a 30-inch layer of
dry snow equals about 1 inch of rain. See Rain Gauge.

Air Pressure, or the weight of air pushing on the
earth, varies from time to time and from place to place.
Meteorologists do not know all the reasons for these
differences in air pressure around the earth. But they do
know that variations in temperature cause some of the
pressure differences. Warm air weighs less than cold air.

It exerts less pressure on the earth and creates an area of
low- pressure. Cold air. which is heavier, creates an area
of high pressure. See Air (Weight and Pressure).

Weathermen call large low-pressure areas lows or
cyclones. Large areas of high pressure are called highs or
antuychnes. Air generally moves from a high-pressure
area into a low-pressure area. In the same way, winds
blow out of a high and into a low.

Highs usually bring fair weather. The air in the
center settles downward, and is compressed. This com-
pression heats the air and evaporates clouds. Lows
generally bring cloudy or stonny \veather. .\ir currents
in lo\\s move upward, and the air cools. Clouds often
form in the cooling air.

Barometers show the air pressure. A mercury barometer
is a long glass tube with its open end in a cup of mercurs'.
As the air pressure changes, so does the height to which
the mercurs- rises in the tube. The scale on a barometer
mav be marked in inches, in millimeters, or in millibars,
a special scale for measuring pressure. A millibar is
rrwBV of a bar, which is a pressure of 29.53 inches of
mercury at sea level. To obtain an accurate measure-
ment, the reading on a barometer must be corrected for
variations in altitude, temperature, and gravity differ-
ences at different latitudes.

Aneroid barometers record changes in pressure by using
an airtight box. Most of the air is removed from the box.
The metal surfaces of the box move in or out as air
pressure increases or decreases. These changes control a
pointer on a dial. .Aneroid barometer readings do not
need corrections for temperature and gravity differences.
See B.\ROME-rER.

Weather Patterns

Weather conditions move from one place to another.
A storm that starts in Canada can bring snow- and
freezing temperatures to the Midwestern United States.
A hurricane that develops in the Caribbean Sea can
destro\' homes on the New England coast. As meteorolo-
gists learn more about the patterns and movement of
weather, thc\- can impro\-e their forecasts.

Temperature Patterns. The angle at w-hich the sun's
rays strike the earth afl'ects the temperature in different
areas. Sunshine strikes the earth at almost a right angle
(90°) near the equator, and at acute angles in polar
regions. This causes the difference in temperature be-
tween the equator and the poles.

The changing angle of the sun's rays also causes the
changing seasons. In winter, the sun is low in the sky.
Sunshine must pass through more atmosphere when the
sun is low. Much of it is absorbed or scattered back to
space, never reaching the earth's surface. The sunshine
that does reach the earth is spread over a larger area.
It cannot heat the earth as well as sunshine that strikes
at almost a right angle. In summer or at lower latitudes,
the sunshine strikes the earth at higher angles. The
energy of the sun's rays is not absorbed, scattered, or
spread out as much. See Se.^son.

A flashlight can help you understand how the angle
of the sun's rays affects the amount of energ\- the earth
receives. If you shine a flashlight beam straight down
on a piece of paper, the light will be concentrated in a
circle. If you hold it at an angle, the light will spread
out and not be so strong.

A 12-inch ruler and a jar of water can show \ou how

WEATHER

the angle of the sun's rays affects the amount of atmos-
phere they pass through. If you stand the ruler straight
down in six inches of water, only half of it becomes wet.
But if you put the ruler in the water at an angle, the
water will reach higher up on the stick. This shows that
the slanting ruler has passed through more water.

Air Movement. The earth would become hotter and
hotter if the atmosphere could not get rid of stored-up
heat. Winds carr>- excess heat from the equator to the
cold polar regions.

The warm air at the equator weighs less than the
cooler air farther north or south. Because of this, a
perrnanent low-pressure area forms around the earth
near the equator. This area is called the equatorial low.
The cold air at the poles sinks to the earth, creating
areas of polar highs. The heavier air from the polar highs
moves toward the equator. It pushes underneath the
warm air, and forces it upward into the upper atmos-
phere. The warm air, now in the upper atmosphere,
moves toward the poles. This movement of air from the
poles to the equatorand backagain goes on continuously.
Cold air becomes warm as it reaches the equator. It is
then forced upward by more cold air, and begins moving
toward the poles.

However, air masses do not move directly north or
directly south. The rotation of the earth creates a force
called the Coriolis force. This force pushes air currents to
the right of the direction the\- are moving in the North-
ern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemi-
sphere. By experimenting with a globe, you can see how
the Coriolis force causes the winds to change directions.
Spin the globe in the same direction as the earth turns
(to the right). While the globe spins, draw a chalk line
directly down from the North Pole toward the South
Pole. When you stop the globe, you will not see a
straight line. You will see a curve that comes toward the
equator and crosses it at an angle. The chalk line looks
as if it had been draw-n from the northeast toward the
southwest. See Coriolis Force.

Because of the Coriolis force, the hea-vy air at the
earth's surface pushing toward the equatorial low does
not blow directly from the north in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. It blows from the northeast. In the Southern
Hemisphere it blows froin the southeast. These north-
east and southeast winds are called trade winds (see
Trade Wind).

Scientists do not clearly understand why the exchange
of air between the equator and the poles is not so simple
as they might expect. The air mass traveling in the
upper atmosphere from the equator toward the poles
begins to sink near 30° latitude. .\s the air drops, it
spreads out. Some of it returns toward the equator. The
rest moves along the earth's surface toward the poles.
This subtropical region (near 30° latitude) has a belt of
high pressure around the earth.

The air that drops to earth and continues moving
toNvard the poles begins to change its direction. In the
Northern Hemisphere, the rotation of the earth changes
it from a south wind to a southwest or nearly westerly
wind. The winds in this region are called prevailing
ivesterlies (see Prevailing \Vesterlv). Farther north,
these polebound air masses meet the cold, heav\' air of
the polar region. The warm, light westerlies rise above

132a

The Hurricane Generator. A real hurri-
cane begins when the sun heats the ocean, pro-
ducing a rising cloud of warm, moist air. In the
hurricane generator, a cloud of water vopor is
formed by heating water in a pan. Cool air
enters ot the sides of the generator, forcing the
cloud to twist upward like a real hurricone.

Cool Air

'■^.,

A WORLD BOOK SCIENCE PROJECT

A HOMEMADE HURRICANE

The purpose of this project is to show how hurricanes form
and to demonstrate how the winds of a hurricane spin in
different directions in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

MATERIALS AND ASSEMBLY

You con buy all the materials you need for this project at a hardware store.
To build the hurricane generator, first assemble the wooden boxes that serve
as the top and bottom. Then attach the corner metal angles to the bottom box,
insert the glass and Masonite walls, and attach the upper box and stovepipe.
The inside of the top box should be pointed white to reflect light and
heat. The rest of the ports of the hurricane generator are painted black.

Light bulb (25 watt)

The Upper Box is built of ^^-inch plywood side pieces ond a %-Inch
plywood top piece. Cut a 6-inch hole in the top for the stovepipe. Cut a
1 -inch hole tn one side and screw the electrical box over the hole. Fasten
half-rounds on the inside and outside edges of the bottom of the box. The
half-rounds serve as guides for sliding the pieces of gloss and the Masonite.

The Lower Box is olso built of ^/^-inch and Ve-inch plywood. Cut a 1 2-inch
hole in the top and drill seven 'A-inch ventilating holes near the top of any
two facing sides. Fasten seven half-rounds to the edges of the top of the box.
One side should have only on inside half-round so that the Masonite wall can
be pulled out easily. You con moke legs by nailing strap iron pieces across
each corner. Drill a ys-inch hole in each piece and use Ve-inch bolts as legs.

The Direction of Spin is controlled by slid-
ing the gloss panels to the left or right, A
Northern Hemisphere hurricane, above, twists
counterclockwise. A Southern Hemisphere hurri-
cane, below, twists upward in o clockwise way.

Water Vapor

Cooi Air

Half-rounds

Ventilating holes

The Completed Generofor is assembled using four 2-foot
sections of 1 -inch angle iron. Attach the angle irons to the bottom
box, insert the gloss and Masonite side pieces, and attach the upper
box. The glass and Masonite should meosure 1 4 inches by 20 inches.
You con attach two drawer pulls to the piece of Masonite to make it
easier to handle. Attach the stovepipe to the top with angle braces.

1-in. angle iron

Double-weight glass (14 in. X 20 in.)

Masonite (M in. X 20 in.)

lUuslraled by Belte Davis for WORLD BOOK

To Start the Generotor, take the Masonite wall oft the appa-
ratus and place a pie pan in the lower box. Fill the pan with water
and put the Masonite wall bock on. Slide the gloss and Masonite
walls to the left. Put the hot plate beneath the generator and turn
it on tvlote the twisting action of the cloud of water vapor. Then
move the walls to the right to reverse the direction of the twisting.

Electric hot plate (600 to 1 100 watt)

ANEMOMETER

THERMOMETER

Students Learn to Use Weather Instruments

to find out the exact weather conditions. Then they can
try to make weather predictions for the next few days.

Weather Instruments. A weather vane shows the wind's direction, and on
onemometer shows its speed. A psychrometer measures the dampness of the
air, and a barograph records its pressure. A thermometer indicates temperature.

the polar air. The boundary between the warm air mass
and the cold air mass is called the polar front. The wester-
lies become quite strong about six or seven miles above
the ground over the polar front. They form 300-mile-
wide bands of moving air called jet streams. The jet
streams move from west to east, and their speed may
reach 300 miles an hour. The main stream passes over
the United States at about 40° latitude. But its path
varies gready. The jet stream may bring storms and
floods to regions on earth below it.

The warm air that has traveled from the equator loses
much of its heat in the polar region. Then it sinks and
joins the cold polar air mass that pushes against fresh,
warm air arriving from the subtropics.

Geography. The movements of air masses do not
settle into a simple, constant pattern. Many factors act
together in complex ways to keep the forces that control
weather constantly out of balance.

Differences in Heating Land and Water. The sun heats
land faster than it heats water. But water holds more
heat, and holds it longer. So land and water areas that
lie next to each other may have different temperatures.
Breezes from oceans or large lakes modify the weather
in areas that they reach. They increase the humidity of
nearby land areas. The breezes cool the land in summer
and warm it in winter. For example, a breeze from Lake
Michigan in summer may lower the temperature in
Chicago as much as 15°F. Warm ocean currents may
flow toward the poles and bring warm winds to lands at
high latitudes. For example, the Japan Current brings
warm weather to Alaska. Other places at the same lati-
tude are colder. See Climate (Why Climates Differ);
Ocean (How the Ocean Moves).

Position of the Sun. The sun shines directly above the
equator only two days a year. The position of the equa-
torial low and other pressure areas depends on the
direction of the sun's rays. But the direction of the sun's
rays changes throughout the year. The pressure areas

are constantly moving as the path of the sun moves.

Uneven Surface of the Earth. Mountain ranges and
other geographic features may alter the temperature
and direction of the prevailing winds. Mountains along
a coast may block ocean breezes from inland areas. For
example, the mountains of western Oregon and Wash-
ington block rain-bearing winds from the Pacific Ocean.
The western parts of these states are wet, but the eastern
parts are relatively dry. Altitude also affects weather.
Cities on mountains or plateaus usually have cooler
temperatures than the surrounding lower areas.

Fronts are narrow bands of changing weather between
two different air masses. Most weather changes take
place along fronts. When a cold air mass pushes a
warmer air mass out of the way, it forms a cold front.
When the warm air mass pushes against the cold air
mass, it forms a warm front. If the battle goes neither
way, it becomes a stationary front. A front formed when
a cold front overtakes a warm front is called an occluded
front. Weathermen expect overcast skies and continuous
rain or snow ahead of a warm front. Showers or squalls
usually form along a cold front.

Most weather changes in North America occur along
the polar front. In this region, the cold, dry polar air
mass battles with the warm, moist air mass from the
high-pressure belt of the subtropics. Many storms result
from these differences in temperature and humidity
between air masses. See Storm.

Where Our Weather Comes From. In winter, lows
called extra-tropical cyclones enter North America along
the Pacific Coast. These cyclones form in the middle
latitudes, usually on the polar front. They may cover an
area 600 miles wide. The lows are carried along on the
prevailing westerly winds, and bring moist air and rain
or snow to the Western States and the Rocky Moun-
tains. They generally turn southeast over the middle
part of the United States, then northeast in the Appa-
lachian region or Atlantic states. Southwest winds bring

134

PREDICTING TOMORROW'S WEATHER

Careful observation of cloud formations, wind direction, ond barom-
eter readings will help you predict what the coming weather
will be like. The diagrams below show four typical weather
situations, and indicate what kinds of weather they foretell.

Continued Fair Weather.

When scattered cumulus clouds
dot the sky, the barometer re-
mains steady or rises, and the
wind blows gently from the
west or northwest, fair weath-
er will probably continue.

BAROMETER RISING

Rainstorm Approaching.

Alto-cumulus clouds gathering
on the horizon, winds blowing
from the south or southwest,
and a falling barometer usu-
ally indicate an approaching
storm.

BAROMETER FALLING

Continued Rain or Snow.

When dull-gray alto-stratus
clouds darken the whole sky,
the wind blows from a south-
easterly direction, and the
barometer drops, rain or snow
will probably continue to fall.

BAROMETER FALLING

Falling Temperatures. A

clear night sky, a light wind
blowing from the north or the
northwest, and a steadily rising
barometer usually indicate a
coming drop in temperature.

BAROMETER RISING STEADILY

Birds Do Not Roosf Before a Storm as many people believe.
There is no scientific basis for this superstition.

WEATHER FACTS AND

Aching Corns and other pains are not reliable guides for
predicting bad weather, although changes in air pressure and
moisture may possibly cause pain at sensitive spots.

moist Gulf and Atlantic air to the area east of the
Rockies. This moist air causes rain in the Southern
States and rain or snow in the Northern States. Some
lows become storms.

Most lows are followed by highs. The highs usually
bring clear skies and colder winds from points farther
north. The weather often changes quickly in the fronts
between these warm and cold air masses. Highs that

A Chirping Criclcet can act as a living thermometer. Crickets
chirp faster as the temperature rises. On warm days, adding 37 to
the number of chirps in 1 5 seconds will about equal the temperature.

move south from northern Canada bring severe cold in
winter. Those that come from the northern Pacific are
only moderately cold.

In spring and autumn, the movement of weather is
much the same. But the prevailing west winds are weaker
than in winter. The weather changes are not so rapid
or severe. In summer, the atmosphere over the United
States is usually quiet or moving slowly. The weather
becomes warm or hot. Local storms and thundershowers
cause most of the rainfall. Air from the tropics moves
over the Southern States during the summer, bringing
weather from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.

History of Weather Forecasting

Early Days. Benjamin Franklin was one of the first
persons to realize that storms moved across the land in a
regular way. He found that most storms along the At-
lantic Coast moved in a northeasterly pattern. But at
that time (the late 1 700's) this knowledge could not be
used to forecast storms. The storms moved faster than
the mails. By the time weather observations arrived in a
city, the storm had come and gone.

After 1844, when Samuel Morse perfected the tele-
graph, weather reports could reach an area before the

UNUSUAL FACTS ABOUT THE WEATHER

Driest Place on earth is Arica, Chile. Average annual
rainfall is yg„ of an inch. At Iquique, Chile, no rain
fell in 14 years of the period from 1899 to 1918.

Foggiest Place in the United States is Cape Disap-
pointment at the mouth of the Columbia River in Wash-
ington. It has about 2,552 hours (106 days) of fog a year.

Heaviest Rainfall recorded in a 24-hour period was
46 inches at Baguio in the PhiUppines in July, 1911.
Heaviest rainfall in one year was recorded at Cherra-
punji, India, where 1,041 inches of rain fell between
August, 1860, and July, 1861.

Heaviest Snowfall recorded in the United States during
a 24-hour period, 76 inches, occurred at Silver Lake,
Colo., in 1921. The most snow recorded in the United
States during one winter fell at Rainier Paradise Ranger
Station in the state of Washington. A total of 1,000.3
inches of snow fell during the winter of 1955-1956.

Highest Air Pressure was recorded at Irkutsk, Siberia,
in 1 893, when the sea-level barometric pressure reached
31.75 inches.

Highest Temperature recorded was 136°F., at Azizia,

136

Libya, in northern Africa, on Sept. 13, 1922. Highest
recorded temperature in the United States was 134°F.,
in Death Valley, Calif., on July 10, 1913.

Lovirest Air Pressure was recorded during a typhoon on
the Pacific Ocean in 1958, when the sea-level barometric
pressure fell to 25.90 inches. The lowest sea-level baro-
metric pressure recorded on land was 26.35 inches at
the Florida Keys during a hurricane in 1935.

Lowest Temperature observed on the earth's surface was
— 126.9°F., in Antarctica on Aug. 26, I960. The lowest
temperature recorded in the United States was — 76°F.,
at Tanana, Alaska, in January, 1886.

Strongest Winds measured near the earth's surface
were recorded at Mount Washington, N.H., on April 12,
1934. For five minutes the wind blew at a speed of 188
miles an hour. One gust reached 231 miles an hour.

Weather Disasters. Great storms may take a heavy toll
of life and property. In 1900, for example, the storm tide
of a hurricane killed 6,000 persons in Galveston, Tex.
In 1955, Hurricane Diane killed almost 200 persons and
caused §750,000,000 in damage along the Atlantic Coast.

WEATHER SUPERSTITIONS

The Migration of Birds does not forecast whether cold winter
weather will arrive early or late. Birds may fly south early or late
in the seoson for many different reasons.

weather did. In 1849, Joseph Henr\', secretan' of the
Smithsonian Institution, received and analyzed the first
\seather reports sent by telegraph. The French astrono-
mer Urbain Leverrier (181 1-1871) first used the tele-
graph in a practical way to forecast weather conditions.
He showed that a central office, receiving weather
reports by telegraph from many places, could forecast
storms. In 1854, Napoleon III, the French emperor,
instnicted Leverrier to organize a weather-forecasting
system for France. By the late 1800's, the United States
and many countries in Europe had set up systems of
daily observations and forecasts. In 1870, the U.S. Con-
gress set up a national weather service as part of the
Army Signal Corps. In 1890, the ser\-ice was changed to
a civilian organization known as the Weather Bureau.

Scientific Advances. Since the 1880's, weathermen
have learned much about the behavior of weather ele-
ments and storms. By the early 1900's, weather forecasts
were accurate enough to be useful. At that time, hvo
men proposed new ideas that completely changed the
methods of weather forecasting.

The Nonvegian meteorologist \'ilhelm Bjerknes ( 1 862-
1951) obser\'ed that air above the earth can be thought
of as masses with different properties. Separating these
masses, he found zones of rapidly changing conditions.
He called these zones fronts. Bjerknes, his son Jakob,
and other Norwegian meteorologists, analyzed the con-
ditions and movements of these masses and fronts. Their
theories greatly improved the accuracy of weather
forecasting.

The British meteorologist Lewis Fr>' Richardson ( 1 88 1 -
1953) thought that the principles of mathematics could
be used to help forecast weather. He used the laws of
motion and heat to make calculations from weather ob-
ser\ations. From these calculations, he showed how
weather forecasts could be made. His basic concept was
correct, but his idea was not practical in the early 1 900's.
The calculations took so long that the weather had
come and gone before the forecast was finished. There
were too few observations available to make accurate
forecasts, and Richardson's equations were not in the
right form to predict weather accurately.

For many years, scientists thought that Richardson's
idea had no practical value. Then, in the late 1940's,

The Ground Hog is supposed to leave his den at noon, February
2. Tradition says that If he sees his shadow, cold weather will con-
tinue for six more weeks. This belief has no basis in fact.

Atomic Explosions do not affect weather over large areas. A
moderate-sized hurricane releases more energy than 1 ,000 atomic
bombs. The most powerful bomb has less energy than a tornado.

electronic computers were developed. They could do
the needed calculations quickly enough to be useful. By
this time, the number of weather stations and the fre-
quency of observations had increased. At the end of
World War II, a group of American meteorologists, led
by the mathematician John von Neumann (1903-1957),
found a way to write the laws of physics so that mete-
orologists could use them to make forecasts.

During \\''orld War II, pilots flying over Japan found
the winds at certain high altitudes extremely strong.
Carl-Gustaf Rossby (1898-1957), a Swedish-American
meteorologist, investigated these winds after the war.
The winds, called jet streams, have great importance to
aviation because they affect the speeds of high-altitude
flights. Meteorologists believe that the jet stream helps
form, intensify, and direct highs, lows, hurricanes, and
other \veather conditions on the earth. Forecasters pay
close attention to the location, strength, and movement
of jet streams.

Information about conditions in the upper atmosphere
helps weatliermen forecast accurately. They receive
most of this information from instrument-canv'ing bal-
loons. In 1959, the United States sent into orbit the first
satellite specifically designed to gadier, record, and
transmit weadier information back to earth.

Much of the information gathered during the Inter-
national Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957 and 1958 in-
creased weather knowledge. Antarctic bases established

137

WEATHER REPORTS
FROM SPACE

Clouds Over Egypt appear as white blotches in photo taken by TV camera in
Tiros I OS it orbited 450 miles above the earth. Pictures of cloud cover help in under-
standing and forecasting weather. Map, left, shows area of photograph.

during the IGY made it possible for weathermen to
obtain information for making the first complete world
weather map.

On April 1, I960, the United States launched the
first artificial satellite equipped to provide photo-
graphs of the earth's weather conditions. Known as
Tiros I, its two television cameras transmitted both
broad and detailed pictures of the earth's cloud cover.
During the early 1960's, Tiros I and other weather
satellites continued to provide valuable information
about weather conditions in many parts of the world.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) cooperated with the United States Weather
Bureau in launching and using U.S. weather satellites.
In 1963, the United States and Russia agreed to ex-
change weather information obtained from satellites.
The two countries set up a research exchange line kept
open 24 hours a day and began exchanging photographs
of cloud formations.

In 1963, the World Meteorological Organization,
a specialized agency of the United Nations, approved
a plan for mapping the weather around the globe. The
plan, known as a World Weather Watch, called for arti-
ficial satellites and thousands of land and sea stations
to gather weather information. Three world centers
would use this information to make long-range weather
forecasts.

Attempts to Control the Weather. Many ancient and
primitive societies tried to find ways to control the

138

weather. They wanted rain to make their crops grow, or
they wanted to stop the rain to prevent floods. Some
tribes made offerings or sacrifices to their gods. Others
held dances to pray for rain. More civilized people tried
to control the weather by shooting off cannons or by
setting off" other explosions. In farm areas, some men
called themselves "rain makers" and earned their living
by promising to make rain during droughts.

Cloud seeding is the modern, scientific approach to
rain making. An airplane may drop dry ice, salt parti-
cles, water spray, or other substances into a cloud
in order to "seed" it. Or silver iodide "seeds" may
be released from the ground and carried into the cloud
by the wind. If conditions are favorable, tiny droplets
of water from the cloud collect around each "seed"
and fall to the earth as rain or snow. But cloud seeding
is not successful unless the clouds are almost ready to
to produce rain. See Rain Making.

Cloud seeding is usually used to make rain when
there is a drought. But cloud seeding methods have
also been used to get rid of fog and to prevent fruit trees
and other crops from being damaged by wind and hail.
By seeding the clouds before they reach an area with
valuable crops, experts can sometimes reduce the
strength of a storm and save crops from harm.

Scientists have experimented with controlling the
weather in several other ways. These include sending
an electric current through a cloud, and seeding clouds
with chemicals other than silver iodide.

Meteorologists in all parts of the world stud>- cloud
seeding and other ways of controlling the weather. They
hope to learn how to alter the paths of hurricanes, con-
trol the evaporation from the seas, thaw out frozen areas
near the North and South poles, and change wind
patterns over the land. James e. miller

Related Articles in World Book include:
Elements of Weather

Blizzard

Frost

Mistral

Squall

Chinook

Call

Monsoon Storm

Cloud

Hail

Norther

Temperature

Cloudburst

Har

■mattan

Prevailing Thunder

Cyclone

Humidity

Weste

rly Tornado

Dew

Hurricane

Rain

Trade Wind

Drought

Ice

Rainbow Typhoon

Dust

Jet:

Stream

Sandsto

rm Waterspout

Dust Storm

Khamsin

Simoom

Whirlwind

Evaporation

Land and Sea

Sirocco

Wind

Foehn

-eezes

Sleet

Zephyr

Fog

Lightning

.Snow

Weather Instruments

.'Vnemometer

Radiosonde

Thermocouple

Barometer

Rain Gauge

Thermograph

Hygrometer

Space Travel

Thermometer

Kite

(Artificial Satellites)

Weather Vane

Unclass:

IFIED

Air

Flag (col

or pic-

Spring

Air Conditioning

ture. Flags

Summer

Atmosphere

That Talk)

Sunspot

Autumn

Horse Latitudes

Troposphere

Boats and Boating

Indian S

ummer

Weather Bureau,

(picture, Warn-

Isobar

United States

ing .Signals)

Isotherm

Winter

Calms, Region;

sof

Meteorology

World (Natural

Climate

Rain Making

Factors)

Doldrums

Season

Outline

C. Kinds of Forecasts

C. Effects of a .Storm

C. Moisture

D. Air Pressure

Fronts

Where Our Weather
Comes From

Weather Forecasting

A. Observations

B. Analysis
II. The Story of o Storm

A. Birth of a Storm

B. Tracking a .Storm

III. What Makes' Up Weather?
.\. Temperature
B. Wind

IV. Weather Patterns

A. Temperature Patterns D.

B. -Air Movement E.

C. Geography
V. History of Weather Forecasting

Questions

What are the four main elements of weather?

How does the rotation of the earth affect the direc-
tion of winds?

Why must weather forecasters know the weather in
distant areas?

How does the Coriolis force affect the direction of
weather in the United States?

How do weather forecasters track a hurricane?

How are computers used in weather forecasting?

How does man control the weather?

How has the weather affected your life recently?

Why are weather forecasts not always accurate?

How does the earth's surface affect weather-"

What is the difference between weather and climate?

What is the highest temperature ever recorded?

How does temperature affect air pressure?

What is an anemometer? A hygrometer? A rain gauge?

WEATHER BALLOON. See Balloon.

WEATHER SATELLITE

WEATHER BUREAU, UNITED STATES, provides fore-
casts, observations, and records of the weather in the
United States and its territories. The Bureau issues
forecasts and reports for the general public, and pro-
vides several special services. It sends out warnings
of hurricanes, tornadoes, and other dangerous storms.
It measures rainfall and river levels in order to fore-
cast navigation, flood, and water-supply conditions.
The Bureau also issues special weather information
for farmers and airplane pilots. It keeps records of the
climate of the United States and other countries, and
studies ways to improve weather forecasting.

The Weather Bureau is an agency of the Department
of Commerce. It has a central office in Washington,
D.C., and regional offices in New York City; Kansas
City, Mo.; Fort Worth, Texas; Salt Lake City, Utah;
and Anchorage, Alaska. About 300 weather stations in
the United States and its possessions have full-time
staffs. These stations take observations every three or
six hours. The Weather Bureau has more than 12,000
substations that gather infomiation on weather. About
3,500 of these substations send reports of the current
weather to the main offices by telephone and telegraph.
Some substations provide flags and lights to warn
ships of dangerous weather conditions. The Severe
Local Storm Center at Kansas City, Mo., keeps a
constant watch for conditions that may produce tor-
nadoes or other severe local storms.

.Several federal agencies work closely with the
Weather Bureau. For example, the Coast Guard gath-
ers weather infonnation from merchant ships when the
ships report their positions at sea. The Federal Aviation
Agency helps the Weather Bureau gather weather in-
formation at airport weather stations and supply weath-
er reports to pilots. The Weather Bureau cooperates
with the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration in the operation and use of weather satellites.
These satellites circle the earth and take pictures of
clouds. They send the pictures to ground receiving
stations. Satellites make it possible to gather weather
information in distant lands and seas.

Weather reports pour into the Weather Bureau's
National Meteorological Center near Washington, D.C.
There, the Analysis and Forecast, Computation, and
Extended Forecast branches analyze the reports. They
make forecasts with the aid of high-speed computers
and distribute them to local offices. The Weather
Bureau also exchanges reports with other nations.

Weather advice, forecasts, reports, and warnings
are given to the public by means of newspapers, radio,
telegraph, telephone, and television. Many weather
Bureau offices are connected to radio stations, and
the local forecasters speak directly to ffie public.

The public weather service of the United States
began in 1870 as part of the Anny Signal Corps, In
1890, Congress organized the Weather Bureau under
the Department of Agriculture. The President trans-
ferred the Bureau to the Department of Commerce in

1940. Critically reviewed by United States Weather Bureau

See also Weather (Weather Forecasting; History).
WEATHER FORECASTING. See Weather.
WEATHER SATELLITE. See Space Tr.wel (Arti-
frciai Satellites).

139

Whitehall XTolal Sludios

A Weather Vane shows the direction from which the wind comes.
The crowing rooster on the arrow gave it the name weat/iercocfe.

WEATHER VANE is a device that turns freely on an
uprigiit rod and points in tlie direction from which wind
comes. It is also called a ivind vane or wfnthercoik. The
weather vane is one of the oldest weather instruments
and is often ornamental in shape.

The part of the vane which turns into the wind is
usually shaped like an arrow. The other end is wide,
so it will catch the smallest breeze. The breeze turns the
arrow until it catches both sides of the wide end equally.
Thus, the arrow always points into the wind. Below
the arrow is a round plate on which the directions are
marked. Vanes used by weather bureaus have electrical
connections that record wind direction in a room far

from the vane itself. John Vernor Finch

WEATHERING. See Geology (Weathering Destroys
Rock); .Son. (Water).

WEATHERLY, FREDERIC. See Londonderry Air.

WEAVER, ROBERT CLIFTON (1907- ), was ap-
pointed administrator of the Housing and Home Finance
Agency by President John F. Kennedy in 1961. At the
time, it was the highest appointive federal office ever
held by a Negro.

He began his government career in 1933 as adviser on
Negro affairs in the Department of the Interior. Weaver
was named New York Deputy State Housing Commis-
sioner in 1954. Named State Rent Administrator in
1955, he became the first Negro to attain cabinet rank
in New York. Weaver also served as chairman of the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People. He was awarded the Spingarn medal in 1962
(see Spinc;arn Medal).

Weaver was born in Washington, D.C. He received
the B..S. degree from Harvard University in .1929 and

the M.A. degree in 1931. After teaching for a year, he
returned to Harvard and received his Ph.D. in 1934.

WEAVERBIRD is a small bird that usually weaves a
hanging nest. There are about 275 kinds of weaverbirds.
They live in most parts of the world. The familiar house
or English sparrow found in the United States is a
weaverbird. Weaverbirds eat seeds and grain. They
cannot sing well, but they chatter continually. Most
females and young weaverbirds are plainly colored.
But the males are generally brightly colored during the
mating season.

The sociable weaver of South Africa builds an um-
brella-shaped community roof of sticks and grass in a
tree. The roof is often as large as an African hut. The
underside of the roof is divided into compartments,
each occupied by a pair of birds. As many as 95 indi-
vidual nests have been counted imder one roof. The fe-
male lays three or four speckled, purple-gray eggs.

The Java sparrow uses grasses to weave its nest. It
makes the opening on the side. The female lays six or
more white eggs. The baya, which lives in India and
Ceylon, builds a flask-shaped nest with a long, tubular-
shaped entrance. It hangs its nest fronl thorny branches
or the tips of palm leaves.

Scientific Classification. Weaverbirds belong to the
family Ploceidae. The sociable weaver is genus Phile-
laerus, species P. socius. The house sparrow is Passer
dotnesticus. Leonard W. Wing

See also Bird (Building the Nest; color picture, Birds
of Other Lands); English Sparrow.

WEAVING. Man was a weaver as early as the New
Stone Age. He had learned to make a rough kind of
clothing from the fibers of the flax plant. The making of
linen cloth had become a fine art by the time of the
ancient Egyptians. About 2000 B.C., the Chinese dis-
covered how to unwind the threads of silkworm cocoons
and weave them into cloth. At about the same time,
the people of India found
out how to make cloth from
the fibersof the cotton plant.
I n ancientGreece and Rome
the weaving of silk, wool,
linen, and cotton cloth had
been highly developed.
Weaving had become more
than a simple interlacing of
lengthwise and crosswise
threads. Men had figured
out ways to cross the differ-
ent threads so as to make
beautiful patterns in the

material. Colorful and intricate tapestries were woven in
Persia and India. By the 1400"s, the city of Arras, in
Flanders, had become famous for its tapestries (see
Tapestry).

During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, people
wove cloth in their homes on awkward hand looms.
Mothers wove the cloth and made the clothing for all
the members of the family. About 1 764, James Har-
greaves of England invented the spinning jenny (see
Spinning Jenny). It could make thread from plant and
animal fibers. The inventions of Hargreaves and others
made large supplies of yarn available, and faster weav-
ing was demanded. In 1785, Edmund Cartwright, an
English clergyinan, invented a power loom, a mechani-

Warp — *■

Arrangement of warp and
weft threads in the plain weave

140

cal device for weaving (see Cartwright, Edmund).
Cartwriglit's power loom ran by steam. It was essentially
the same as a hand loom, but working parts took the
place of human hands, ^\'ithin the next 1 50 years, weav-
ing became a factory operation. In the United States,
the industry grew rapidly. Today, the yearly value of
its products totals more than $2,000,000,000.'

How Cloth Is Woven

Loose strands of yarn are made into cloth in much
the same way that we darn a sock. That is, a group of
length\vise threads are arranged in rows very close to-
gedier. Crosswise threads are then laced over and under
the lengthwise threads. The ancient weavers strung the
lengthwise threads on a frame, and laced the crosswise
threads in by using a shutde somewhat like a large
needle. They raised and lowered the lengthwise threads
bv hand, to allow the shuttle to go under and over them.
Later, a device called the harness was invented to raise
and lower the lengthwise threads automatically.

Today, machines perform the entire weaving process.
The harness, shuttles, and other weaving devices work
automatically. Power looms of today require few human
workers. The loom of tomorrow may work without yarn
itself, making cloth directly from synthetic ingredients,
somewhat as a waffle iron makes waffles. Nets and other
thin textiles have already been made this way.

The Basic Weaves

All weaving has drree basic forms: (1) the plain
weave, (2) the t\vill weave, and (3) the satin weave.

Plain Weave. Many of our cottons and linens are
woven in plain weave. The lengthwise, or warp, threads
are set evenly on the frame. The shutde carrying the
crosswise, weft or woof, threads goes over one warp, then

WEAVING

under the next, then over, and so on until the material
is woven. Some of the plain-weave cloths are gingham,
percale, chambray, table linen, shantung, woolen,
tweed, and voile.

Twill Weave is made by crossing of the lengthwise
threads by the crosswise threads in an irregular way, so
that the finished cloth has rows of diagonally raised
lines. Gabardine, covert cloth, twill, and many other of
our common clodis are twill-woven. The very tightly
drawn threads in this weave give longer wear to the
cloth. For this reason, men's and women's suits are often
made from these kinds of cloth.

The number of warp yarns which are taken in at each
crossing of the weft yarns varies with different twills, but
the principle is the same in all. For example, to make
gabardine, the first set of weft yarns crosses one warp
yarn, then goes under two, over one, and repeats on to
the end of the row. The next set of weft yarns, however,
crosses two lengthwise yarns, then goes under two, over
one, and so on to the end of the row of lengthwise yarns.

Safin Weave is really a broken twill in which the twill
lines do not show. Instead of progressing one warp yarn
at tire beginning of each new crossing of the weft yarns,
it progresses two. The material gets its smooth appear-
ance on one side because the many warp yarns hide the
weft yarns. Elizabeth Cheslev Baity

Related Articles in World Book include:

Basket Weaving
Handicraft (picture)
Hobby (picture. Weaving)
Indian, American (color

pictures)
Iran (picture, Young Girls)
Jacquard, Joseph M.

North Carolina (color

picture)
Philippines (picture,

Filipino Women)
Rugs and Carpets
Textile
Utah (color picture)

Students Demonstrate Oriental Weaving on Hand Loom. A Single Workman Can Tend Several Power Looms.

Ewing Galloway; Douglas Gcndieai

141

WEBB INSTITUTE

WEBB INSTITUTE OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE is a

private technological college for men at Glen Cove,
N.Y. It is the only college which devotes its curriculum
to naval architecture and marine engineering. All stu-
dents have full expense scholarships for the four-year
course. Admission is by competitive examination. Webb
Institute was founded in 1889. For enrollment, see
Universities AND Colleges (table). thomas m. curran

WEBB-KENYON LAW. See Prohibition (National
Action).

WEBB-POMERENE ACT is a bill that modified the
Sherman Antitrust Act by allowing corporations to form
business combinations (trusts) for foreign-trade purposes.
It was passed by the United States Congress in 1918.